Pipe Fittings

    Pipe Fittings


    This chapter presents various types of pipe fittings. Of all the fittings, the elbow is the one most often used. Simply put, the elbow, or ell, is used when a pipe changes direction. Elbows can turn up, down, left, right, or any angle in between. When one finds it necessary to draw a 90° elbow or calculate how much space it will occupy in a routing configuration, knowing its length becomes essential. An elbow's length is commonly referred to as the center-to-end dimension and is measured from the centerpoint of its radius to the end of either opening. Dimensional sizes of fittings are typically provided by the manufacturer of the fitting. Manufacturers issue dimensioning charts containing lengths for a particular fitting. Another elbow that may be used under certain circumstances and with permission from the customer is the 90° short-radius elbow. The 90° short-radius ell makes a much sharper turn than does the long-radius ell.


   



    Emissions from Pipe Fittings and Gaskets


    Threaded pipe fittings in the seal flush line can be significant leak sources, with readings above 1,000 ppm.4,17 Similar emission levels may be measured near the gasket region on the seal chamber face. Any leakage from these areas may drift into the emission measurement area for the mechanical seal. The mechanical seal may then be erroneously implicated as a leaker. It should be standard practice to sniff nearby hydraulic fittings and the flange gasket area if excessive VOC concentrations are detected adjacent to the mechanical seal.


   



    Leak-tight threaded pipe fittings can be more easily attained using anaerobic paste-type sealants rather than PTFE tape. The seal chamber face must be smooth to be emission tight. Gaskets and O-rings must be free of nicks and scratches.


   



    32.16.2 Thermoplastic Fittings Manufacturing


    Thermoplastic pipe fittings may be injection-molded, fabricated, rotomolded, or thermoformed. Injection-molded fittings are generally made in sizes through 12-in. nominal diameter. Typical molded fittings are tees, 45-degree and 90-degree elbows, reducers, couplings, caps, flange adapters, stub ends, branch saddles, service saddles, and self-tapping saddle tees. Electrofusion couplings and fittings are either made by injection molding or machined from pipe stock. Electrofusion fittings and couplings are made with a coil-like integral heating element incorporated into the fitting. Joining with other fittings uses an electrical fusion device that provides electricity into the heating element, which melts the adjacent thermoplastic material and creates a fusion-welded joint.


   



    Larger-diameter fittings exceed the capabilities of injection molding and are typically fabricated. Rotomolding is used for the manufacture of polyethylene large-diameter (up to 60 in.) and custom fittings for polyethylene corrugated drainage piping applications.


   



    Thermoformed fittings are made by heating a section of pipe and then using a forming tool to reshape the heated area. Examples of thermoformed fittings are sweep elbows, swaged reducers, and forged stub ends. Some polyethylene corrugated pipe fittings and appurtenances are also thermoformed.


   



    All proprietary joints shall be made in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Care shall be taken to establish satisfactory jointing techniques for all water service pipework. When making joints by welding, brazing, or soldering, precautions shall be taken to avoid the risk of fire. All burrs shall be removed from the ends of pipes and any jointing materials used shall be prevented from entering the waterways. All piping and fittings shall be cleaned internally and free from particles of sand, soil, metal filings, and chips, etc.


   



    8.19.3 Cast iron pipes


    Flexible mechanical joints shall be made in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.


   



    For molten lead joints, the spigot and socket shall be centered with rings of dry yarn caulked tightly into the bottom of the spigot to prevent the entry of lead into the bore of the pipe and to prevent contact of lead with the water.


   



    Synthetic yarns that do not promote the growth of bacteria shall be used to prevent contamination of the water. The remainder of the joint space shall be filled with molten lead (taking care that no dross enters the joint), cold wire, strip, or spun lead (lead wool). The joint shall be caulked to a smooth finish with pneumatic tools or a hand hammer of mass not less than 1.5 kg. When working with spun lead, caulking tools shall be of a thickness to fill the joint space, ensuring thorough consolidation of the material to the full depth of the socket.


   



    Lead joints shall be finished about 3 mm inside the face of the socket.


   



    Flange joints shall be made with screwed or cast on flanges.


   



    8.19.4 Steel pipes


    Welded joints shall not be used where a protective lining would be damaged by heat, or where the pipework is employed as a primary circulation to an indirect hot water heating system.


   



    Screwed joints in steel piping shall be made with screwed socket joints using wrought iron, steel, or malleable double crimping fitting. A thread filler shall be used. Exposed threads left after jointing shall be painted or, where installed underground, thickly coated with bituminous or other suitable corrosion preventative agent.


   



    Flange joints shall be made with screwed or welded flanges of steel or cast iron using jointing rings and, if necessary, a suitable jointing paste. The nuts shall be carefully tightened, in opposite pairs, until the jointing ring is sufficiently compressed between the flanges for a watertight joint.


   



    8.19.5 Unplasticized PVC pipes


    8.19.5.1 Mechanical joints


    Mechanical joints in unplasticized PVC piping of sizes 2 and upwards shall be made in accordance with BS4346: Part 2, by the use of push-fit integral elastomeric sealing rings which are compressed when the plain ended pipes are inserted into the adjoining sockets. The plain pipe ends shall be chamfered and the surfaces cleaned and lubricated.


   



    The chamfered pipe end shall be inserted fully into the adjoining socket (except where provision is to be made for expansion), or as far as any locating mark put on the spigot end by the manufacturer. The sealing rings shall comply with BS2494.


   



    8.19.5.2 Compression joints


    Compression joints shall only be used with unplasticized PVC piping of size 2 and smaller. The joints shall be of the nonmanipulative type. Care shall be taken to avoid overtightening.


   



    8.19.5.3 Solvent cement welded joints


    Solvent cement welded joints in unplasticized PVC piping shall be made using solvent cement complying with BS4346: Part 3 recommended by the manufacturer of the pipe. The dimensions of the spigots and sockets shall comply with BSEN1452: Part 1–5.


   



    Joints may also be made using integral sockets formed in the pipes and solvent cemented.


   



    8.19.5.4 Flanged joints


    Flanged joints used for connections to valves and fittings shall use full-face flanges or stub flanges, both with corrosion resistant or immune backing rings and bolting.


   



    8.19.5.5 Polyethylene pipes


    Mechanical joints shall be either plastics or metal proprietary compression fittings, for example, brass, gunmetal, or malleable iron. These shall include insert liners to support the bore of the pipe except where the manufacturer of the fitting instructs otherwise.


   



    To ensure satisfactory jointing of the materials from which the pipe and transition elbow are made compatibility shall be established. The manufacturer’s instructions shall be carefully followed.


   



    No attempt shall be made to joint polyethylene piping by solvent cement welding.


    Large pipe fittings and valve components must be press forged and will require extensive machining. Whereas small parts such as the flange previously described can be quickly heated and cooled, and given optimum process conditions, should exhibit microstructure and properties similar to pipe and tube, the properties of large forgings will be location and thickness dependent. While no large forged part has yet been made from 740H, the properties of a solution-annealed, water-quenched and aged 343-mm-diameter bar shown in Table 14.2 are informative. Yield strength near the surface is comparable to that of thin wall tube, but yield strength at the bar center, while meeting ASME minimum, is significantly lower. Ductility and toughness were good. A hardness traverse taken on the as quenched bar showed VHN 170 at the surface and VHN 290 at the center. This is indicative of strong auto-aging in the bar center. Because the γ′ that forms on slow cooling is relatively coarse, after the final aging treatment, the bar center will have lower strength than the surface. The microstructure and creep strength at the center of the bar has not been evaluated.


   



    A calculated continuous cooling transformation diagram for alloy 740H is shown in Fig. 14.26. This diagram supports the notion that significant γ′ hardening will occur even during water quenching of a large forging. A cooling simulation was conducted for the bar heat treatment using DEFORM software [49]. The cooling rate at a depth of 25 mm was 315°C/min and at the bar center was 30°C/min. Based on the calculated CCT diagram, there should be about 10% γ′ in the center and no γ′ at the surface. That is consistent with the experimental results.


   



    Filament-wound pipe fittings, such as elbows and tees have been used in the chemical, and oil industry since the 1980s.9 Traditionally, composite pipe fittings were produced manually or semi-manually, but the development of CNC winders with six or more axes has allowed automated production of pipe fittings since the 1990s. The efficiency of these advanced machines depends on methods and software to determine winding patterns and perform fabrication of the complex shape within manufacturing specifications. Winding pattern generation is particularly challenging since a substantial amount of data storage/processing is required to meet manufacturing requirements (e.g., fiber tension and full-coverage) of non-axisymmetric patterns, which are required for filament-wound elbows or tees.72 On the other hand, it is worth noting that CAM software capability, rather than hardware, is considered the limiting factor for improving the performance of automated winders of non-axisymmetric parts. Consequently, general-purpose filament winding systems for pipe fittings are currently deemed impractical due to the lack of universal mathematical models and design software for CAM.9,73 Although some progress has been made to determine closed-form solutions for efficient winding patterns on specific shapes, such as elbows,74,75 most CAM systems still implement approximate methods to design and produce specific pipe fitting geometries.73 An illustration of a software-generated winding pattern, and the resulting wound elbow, is included in Fig. 11.75


   



    Leaking valves and pipe fittings are the next concern when pressure is dropping during a test. Test sections should be isolated at pipeline block valves by using slip blinds to insure no leakage. If the test section cannot be blinded but the valves are double blocked instead, the operator must measure pressure increase in the adjacent section between the double-blocked valves to insure a tight seal exists. You need to be careful when using a thin “fire blind” at an isolation valve because under pressure the thin blind will deform and the blind cannot be removed without removing the entire valve. This often requires calling in vacuum trucks to remove product on the opposite side of the test valve being removed.


   



    So, leakage through valves and fittings jeopardizes the chances for a successful test and may lead to data that cannot be correlated, and in that situation, the pipeline must be retested.


   



    Tree piping is defined as all pipe, fittings, or pressure conduits, excluding valves and chokes, from the vertical bores of the tree to the flowline connections. The piping may be used for production, pigging, monitoring, injection, servicing, or testing of the subsea tree. Inboard tree piping is upstream of the first tree wing valves. Outboard tree piping is downstream of the first tree wing valve and upstream of the flowline connector.


   



    Tree piping is normally designed in accordance with ASME B31.3. The guidelines in the API specifications are general and, in many cases, open to interpretation. It is up to the manufacturer to apply his engineering judgment.

Best smart bulbs for your connected home

    Best smart bulbs for your connected home


    Smart LED bulbs that can be controlled by a hub or smartphone app are no longer a new idea. What is new is how far this technology has come since its advent just a few years ago. Also new: Products like the Nanoleaf Light Panels—a system of interlocking LED panels that let you decorate with light—fundamentally change the light-bulb concept.


    Smart LED bulbs aren’t quite a commodity, but they are getting close to maturity as far as the market goes. Today’s bulbs are more compact, much brighter, have better color representation, and, for the most part, feature control apps that do more than ever and are easier to set up. Prices have also come down, with some no-name color-tunable bulbs now available for less than $10 each. (Buyer beware: You get what you pay for.)


   



    With their rainbow of hues and myriad party tricks, color LEDs get all the press in the world of smart lighting. It’s fun stuff, but the reality is that most of us will rarely find much of a need to turn all the lights in the house blue or red—unless it’s time to celebrate our team winning the World Series. Even then, you’ll probably want to turn them all back to white after the celebration.


   



   



    White light is also important in its own right, as today there is plenty of science to show how various shades of white—with variations in color temperature—impact our psychological state. Cool light that’s closer to blue has an energizing effect, and is best in the morning. Warm light is relaxing, and is best after the sun goes down. Note, however, that not every white smart LED light is color-temperature-tunable. Check out the specs before you buy.


   



    White smart bulbs downplay the party features that are a staple of color-tunable bulbs. On the other hand, white smart bulbs are less expensive than color bulbs, making it more affordable to roll them out in multiple rooms.


   



    We’ve tested just about every color and white smart LED bulb on the market. You’ll find links to all our reviews at the bottom of the page, and we’ll update this story as new models are introduced.


   



    Philips was one of the first players in this market, and the company’s experience shows. Physically, its Hue Color and Ambiance bulbs haven’t changed much since their introduction in late 2012, but the latest generation lasts a lot longer and the company has added a Bluetooth radio that obviates the need for the Philips Hue Bridge (but most smart home denizens will want the Bridge anyway). The Philips Hue ecosystem is the industry’s deepest and broadest, including not only bulbs of every shape and size imaginable, but also indoor and outdoor fixtures as well, including the Philips Hue Calla pathway light and the Philips Hue Lily outdoor spotlight, both of which we like very much.


   



    LIFX is a very strong competitor in the smart lighting space and comes a very close second place in our roundup. LIFX no longer has just A19 and BR30 form factors to offer, and we really like its unique  LIFX+ (which has an array of infrared LEDs that will help your home security camera see in the dark), but Philips still delivers much more diversity in its ecosystem and universe of third-party support.


   



    Our choice won’t surprise anyone who’s been following this market. Philips dominates this space and is also our top pick for best color LED smart bulb. The latest Hue bulbs can be controlled via Bluetooth or Zigbee (the latter requires the Philips Hue Bridge), they deliver high-quality light, and are backed by a strong warranty. We received the BR30 form factor for our review, but the bulb is also available in A19, candelabra, and even with vintage-style LED filaments.


   



    The new Cree Connected Max line of smart bulbs is agressively priced and available in all the most popular form factors: A19, A21, BR30, and PAR38. The A19 Tunable White + Color Changing bulb we reviewed costs just $10, and it supports both Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, so you don’t need to factor in the added cost of a hub to integrate it into your smart home. It’s a very good product.


   



    Most home security cameras are equipped with infrared LEDs to deliver a semblance of night vision. the LIFX+ is equipped with infrared LEDs of its own, which are active even when the bulb is turned off via software. Infrared light is invisible to the naked eye, but the LIFX+ can bathe a room in it so that your security camera can see more of the room and in more detail than it can with its own infrared LEDs. 


    The 2020 version of the Philips Hue Lightstrip Plus LED is the only strip light to support both Bluetooth and the more robust Zigbee protocol (if you’re willing to pay for the required bridge to connect it to your Wi-Fi network, that is). The very nature of LED light strips renders them delicate devices, and the first review product we received broke after a short amount of time (the second one is holding up just fine). But we haven’t encountered a competing device that’s as versatile as this one. 


   



    Smart light bulb protocols and features


    Three control technologies continue to vie for leadership in the smart downlight market (Z-Wave is a major contender in smart lighting, but you won’t encounter it in bulbs—just in switches, plug-in modules, control panels, and smart-home hubs).


   



    Zigbee: Bulbs that use the popular smart-home networking protocol require a bridge to communicate with your home Wi-Fi network. This is the technology Philips has adopted for its Hue lineup, but it’s not the only one.


    Wi-Fi: This class of bulb talks directly to your Wi-Fi router, no hub or bridge required. LIFX and TP-Link both manufacture excellent Wi-Fi smart bulbs, but neither company comes close to Signify’s Philips Hue lineup in terms of the depth and breadth of the Hue ecosystem.


    Bluetooth: These bulbs skip your home network altogether and pair directly with your smartphone or tablet. As such, they can’t be controlled from outside your home. GE and a number of other manufacturers make Bluetooth bulbs, some of better quality than others. Signify has recently added Bluetooth radios to its Philips Hue line of smart GU10 spotlight, which eliminates the need to deploy the Philips Hue Bridge. Taking the bridge out of the equation reduces the overall cost of deployment, but adds some limitations. You can read more in our review of the new Philips Hue bulbs.


    Each of these technologies has pros and cons, so before you attempt to settle on a specific bulb, first try to determine which tech is right for you. If you want to hook your bulbs into a broader smart-home system—such as SmartThings or Nest—Bluetooth bulbs are out. You can control more than one bulb with your phone, but you can’t connect it to sensors or other systems inside your home. Don’t like the idea of pairing a bulb to your phone? A Wi-Fi bulb will work best for you, though you won’t have quite as many options as you’ll find with a Zigbee product.


   



    Smart bulb, or smart switch?


    There’s a significant argument about the best way to install smart lighting, and two approaches present themselves. You can either go with expensive smart bulbs and control them all individually, or you can use cheap dumb bulbs and install smart switches to control all the lights on that circuit. Both approaches make sense: With smart bulbs, the biggest issue is cost, but there’s also complexity to deal with. While bulbs can usually be grouped based on location, this is only as intuitive to manage as the bulb control app.


   



    Smart switches, on the other hand, are far more complicated to install—to the point where some users might be uncomfortable dealing with exposed wiring and would prefer to hire an electrician. Smart switches, however, provide more flexibility in many installations.


   



    Habituated from years of flipping hard-wired switches, many users (or their children) will instinctively use the wall switch to turn the lights out when they leave a room. Once that happens, all the apps in the world won’t be able to turn the light back on until the switch is returned to the on position. While this won’t be an issue if you install smart switches, they can’t change a bulb’s color or color temperature.


   



    That said, smart bulbs, no matter what the technology, still won’t be right for everyone. Notably, most of these bulbs cannot be dimmed via a hardwired wall switch (it messes with the power going to the radio, rendering them useless). Some will fail even if a dimmer is present on the circuit and dialed up to full power. The quality of light from an LED bulb is likely to be much, much better.


   



    The good news is that bulb prices are going down, so it’s easier to get started with 2.4G/IR LED bulb and less punishing should you find that a product doesn’t work for you. That said, we want to get you started on the right foot. So without further ado, here are deep dives into the most worthwhile color and white LED smart bulbs on the market. 

How to Build a Boat Bench Seat?

    How to Build a Boat Bench Seat? 


    DIY projects allow you to achieve the result that you desire. Utilizing your skills and artistic talents is related to this matter, and it’s also a way to save some bucks. With regards to this, many boaters can manage how to build a boat bench seat by themselves.


   



    You may have wood for building boat seats. Some upgrades can be done by adding cushion and vinyl. Once you choose a design, you can start collecting materials.


   



    If you’re groping for design ideas, this article will show you DIY boat bench seats that will surely please you. You can follow them to refurbish or renovate a boat.


    Various boat styles showcase different angles and lines. Wide and deep hulls are the main characteristics of workboats, while sailboats are thin and long. Nonetheless, a wooden banquette would be fantastic on both of these vessels. Here are the steps:


   



    Step 1. Take off Metal and Trim


    A banquette is a bench along the wall. Therefore, you have to consider the needed space and shape for it. The center section of the boat is where you need to lay down this project.


   



    To get started, you have to remove metal or trim but you must keep the pieces for reconnection later on. You may also need to take off logos and insignias that are still useful.


   



    Step 2. Cutting the Chosen Area


    Use chalk to draw a line on your chosen area then you can run the chainsaw over it. Cutting the area should be even and consistent. You may need to tidy up the cutting with a circular saw.


   



    You have to be attentive while doing it as there may be some screws. These tiny pieces of hardware may be hiding underwood plugs.


   



    Step 3. Cleaning


    Get rid of the debris created by cutting since it can block from cutting the bottom part.


   



    Step 4. The Bench Base


    Use two pieces of 2×4 wood and place them 16 inches above the pontoon boat furniture with the support from screws for wood. This step is not only for building the base but hull reinforcement as well.


   



    Get ?-inch plywood to be added over the 2×4 woods with screws. This will strengthen the structural integrity that may have temporarily gone due to the cuttings that were made.


   



    Step 5. Seat Back


    You may recycle some wood that just lay around or V-groove soffit panels. Get measurement from the seat to the boat anchor for the preparation of the seatback.


   



    To ensure that you’re going to create comfortable seats, add horizontal wood blocks that tilt at a slight angle. Install the seatback with 15-gauge finish nails.


   



    Step 6. Seat Attachment


    You may choose any suitable wood for the seat. Mahogany and tropical hardwoods like ipe are the best examples. Pre-drilled screw holes should be done before assembling the parts. Make planks for the bench size that you like and fasten them with stainless wood screws.


   



    Step 7. Painting the Banquette


    If you use recycled wood with some paint on it, you need to sand it before applying a new coat.


   



    Step 8. The Last Touch for Refinement


    You have to add a routed edge over the wooden seat. Then, you can put back the metal and insignia that you removed when starting this project.


   



    The finishing touches will be covering the back panels with new paint, applying oil on the wood to have an attractive sheen, and sealing the original parts with polyurethane.


    When thinking of comfortable bench seats for boats, cushions and vinyl may be the first things that come into your mind. You can skip buying ones for your aluminum boat and instead, make them yourself for customization.


   



    So, here’s a guide on how to make a boat rear bench seat if you don’t mind sewing some seat cover.


    Making a rectangular box frame is the very first step. Make three sides for the lower portion, and they will touch the transom and the floor. Its top will be able to flip and access the engine.


   



    Make some plywood strips based on the measurement of the bench seat. You may have a shop cut it for you. Some 1”x1.5” pressure treated lumber, waterproof wood glue, and 1” staples are the things that you need to put the pieces together.


   



    After forming the box out of the plywood strips, get rid of splinters by sanding. This process can also break the edges to prevent damaging the vinyl. After sanding, you can apply two coatings of paint.


   



    Once the glue has dried, place it on the designated area in your boat. It’s sturdy and it won’t give you problems.


   



    Step 2. Setting the Vinyl Down


    You don’t have to put vinyl at the bottom of the box. An extra piece is needed to be wrapped under the seat. Just apply more effort in working for a nice appearance and allow a vinyl skirt to hang.


   



    Make sure to leave a margin of about half an inch for sewing the edges. This is enough to match the cording’s size. Use the double-sided tape to hold the cording and make it curved without twisting or binding.


   



    If you know how to use the sewing machine, you’ll be fine. But if not, you can ask someone to do it for you. When vinyl is sewn properly, you can install the bench.


   



    Step 3. Cutting the Foam


    Measure the amount of foam that you need, then mark it. Cutting can be done with an electric knife. Give ?” extra to ensure that the vinyl cushion is stuffed nicely. When you have the right piece of foam, glue it on the top of the box.


   



    Batting should be added on the sides for some cushioning with the roughly estimated size. It gives the seat a fuller look. Use a Loctite adhesive to glue it and trimming is needed once it sits in the right place.


   



    Step 4. Adding the Vinyl by Stapling


    Stapling creates a serious grip and adequate strength to hold the vinyl in place. It’s best to use stainless staples. You can begin on the opposing side and work your way to finish tucking the whole piece of vinyl.


   



    Just keep pulling, stapling, and tucking to obtain a neat result. At this point, you have finished a bench seat or a motor box for your aluminum boat.


    As long as you have time, resources, and willingness to work, there’s no reason that you won’t try following the steps on how to build a boat bench seat. You can choose the color, design, size, and materials that you like from these two guides.


   



    Some boaters want to customize the looks of their boats to represent their personalities. No one is stopping you from doing so! It can be a technique to give life to an old boat. Also, you can always make a bench seat in a set-up that brings comfort.


   



    Did you find this article helpful? If yes, share with anyone who would need this.


    It’s the time of the year again when being out on the water is the best place to be. In the heat of the summer sun, there’s really nothing like sitting on a pontoon boat to just drift on a calm lake or spend an entire afternoon fishing. Pontoon boats get a lot of attention during the summer months, and it’s only right to take preventative measures in order to keep the health of your boat in check. One of the easiest ways you can do this is by protecting the pontoon’s seats using seat covers. If you’re thinking about buying pontoon folding boat seat covers, here is a quick guide on what you should look for.


   



    Material


    Pontoon seat covers are made out of many different kinds of materials. The lowest end in the spectrum would be a simple plastic tarp. Although plastic tarps will do the job of covering your seats, they aren’t particularly durable. Plastic tarps are great alternative for quick-fix solutions, but they are not permanent options.


    The next step up to plastic would be canvas tarps. Canvas tarps have long been used as a general cover-up material in boating. They are more durable than plastic in many ways. However, they are also more susceptible to mildew and mold. Canvas tarps today are most often referred to as marine vinyl. It’s still a good alternative if you prefer to use it, but canvas is also easy to stain. Either way, your canvas will definitely protect your pontoon boat seats, but they won’t last as long untreated. If you want your marine vinyl to last longer and protect your flip up boat seat better, you can treat them a waterproof and/or UV spray. The best materials for pontoon seat covers are vinyl blends or polyester. These materials are highly durable and easy to take care of. They are also more resistant to the elements; therefore, they can protect your seats better. Most vinyl blends also offer some breathability factors, so mold and mildew won’t have much room to grow in—even in the most humid conditions.


   



    Size


    You might automatically think that larger is better when it comes to pontoon boat covers, but that’s not necessarily true. Although a larger size will allow you to cover more area, it’s important to measure fit more than anything. Since pontoon boats are exposed to the elements continually, a fitted seat cover will do a better job in protection. Any excess room caused by an unfitted cover will just be excess room for more water or air to enter and damage your pontoon seats.


   



    This is why it’s important to measure your pontoon seats before you go out looking for seat covers. This article discusses how you can measure your seat covers properly. Once you have the dimensions written down, you can then continue shopping for pontoon seat covers. Make sure you check your dimensions against the size of the covers before you purchase. It also helps to read reviews regarding the size of the cover from those that have purchased the same product before. You can also get information from the manufacturer of both the seat cover and your low back folding boat seat.


   



    Other things to look for


    Apart from material and size to consider, you might want to also think about a few other things before you buy a pontoon seat cover. First, you might want to think about ease of use and storage. When you’re not using your pontoon seat covers, where are they going to go? Can they easily be folded up and stowed away someplace on your pontoon boat?


   



    There are also seat covers that might utilize the use of zippers or elastic. Some people prefer seat covers that will just slip over your pontoon seats. But there are others that are so fitted; you’d have to zip them up in place. There are seat covers that come with enclosures and others that don’t. It might not matter to some people, but style and color matter to others. You might find that a lot of pontoon seat covers come in a white color, neutral, or blue color. Whites and neutral colors reflect the sunlight better than darker colors.

Development of a Wireless Temperature Sensor Using Polymer-Derived Ceramics

    Development of a Wireless Temperature Sensor Using Polymer-Derived Ceramics


    A temperature sensor has been developed using an embedded system and a sensor head made of polymer-derived SiAlCN ceramics (PDCs). PDC is a promising material for measuring high temperature and the embedded system features low-power consumption, compact size, and wireless temperature monitor. The developed temperature sensor has been experimentally tested to demonstrate the possibility of using such sensors for real world applications.


   



    1. Introduction


    Accurate temperature measurements are crucial for many applications, such as chemical processing, power generation, and engine monitoring. As a result, development of temperature sensors has always been a focus of microsensor field. A variety of materials have been studied for temperature sensor applications, for example, semiconducting silicon and silicon carbide. Silicon based sensors are typically used at temperatures lower than 350°C due to accelerated material degradation at higher temperature [1, 2]. Silicon carbide based sensors are better than silicon based sensors in high temperature measurement and can be applied in temperatures up to 500°C [3–5].


   



    Polymer-derived SiAlCN ceramics (PDCs) are another widely studied material that demonstrate properties such as excellent high temperature stability [6] as well as good oxidation/corrosion resistance [7]. PDCs have been considered as a promising material for measuring high temperature [8]. Our early works have showed that PDC sensor head can accurately measure high temperature up to 830°C [9] using data acquisition system from National Instruments. The cost and size of the sensor system must be significantly reduced before it can be deployed for real world applications. In this paper, we develop a temperature sensor using PDC and an embedded system. Comparing to the National Instruments data acquisition equipment used in the previous paper, the newly developed embedded sensor is much smaller (9.7?dm3 versus 0.3?dm3), lighter (5.97?kg versus 0.19?kg), and cheaper (approximately $8000 versus $170). A WiFi module is also added so the temperature measurement can be transmitted wirelessly. The embedded board and WiFi module used in this paper are commercially available. The experiments in this paper demonstrate the possibility of deploying PDC based sensors for real world applications.


   



    2. Fabrication of the PDC Sensor Head


    In this study, the PDC sensor head is fabricated by following the procedure reported previously [9]. In brief, 8.8?g of commercially available liquid-phased polysilazane (HTT1800, Kion) and 1.0?g of aluminum-tri-sec-butoxide (ASB, Sigma-Aldrich) are first reacted together at 120°C for 24 hours under constant magnetic stirring to form the liquid precursor for SiAlCN. The precursor is then cooled down to room temperature, followed by adding 0.2?g of dicumyl peroxide (DP) into the liquid under sonication for 30 minutes. DP is the thermal initiator which can lower the solidification temperature and tailor the electrical properties [10]. The resultant liquid mixture is solidified by heat-treatment at 150°C for 24 hours. The disk-shaped green bodies are then prepared by ball-milling the solid into fine powder of ~1?μm and subsequently uniaxially pressing. A rectangular-shaped sample is cut from the discs and pyrolyzed at 1000°C for 4 hours. The entire fabrication is carried out in high-purity nitrogen to avoid any possible contamination.


   



    Pt wires are attached to the sensor head by two ceramic fasteners on the two mounting holes on the diagonal of the sensor head. To improve the conductivity, both mounting holes are coated with Pt plasma; see Figure 1.


   



    To measure temperature using the PDC sensor, the processor needs to perform the following tasks: () supply voltage  to the circuit through DAC7724; () sample the circuit output  using AD7656 and convert the output to temperature measurement; and () transmit data to readers from the RS232 port.


   



    The input signal  to the conversion circuit is a sinusoidal signal of ±10?V. The sinusoidal signal can bypass the parasitic capacitor in series to the PDC probe. The noise from the furnace coil can also be greatly subdued. The sensor output voltage  is approximately sinusoidal as well and its magnitude can be computed using Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) or curve fitting using recursive least square method (RLSM) [11]. Comparing to FFT, RLSM is more computationally efficient but may have numerical instability because TMS320F28335 only supports IEEE 754 floating-point arithmetic. Here we prefer FFT for fast prototyping purpose because Texas Instruments provides FPU library that performs floating FFT routines on C2000 series microcontroller. Next we explain how the sensor works.


   



    A high-priority interrupt service request (ISR1) based on a CPU timer continues reading a look-up-table and drives the DAC7724 to generate the input signal . The frequency of  is controlled by the frequency of ISR1. ISR1 also samples circuit output from AD7656 and adds the data to a 1024-point buffer if there is no FFT running. Once the buffer is filled up, ISR1 stops writing the buffer and the FFT routine starts. The FFT routine is implemented in another slower low-priority interrupt service (ISR2). Once the FFT routine is completed, ISR2 will give ISR1 the permission to clean and write the input buffer again. The magnitude from the FFT is used as the circuit output . The software flowchart is shown in Figure 4.


   



    High temperature sensors capable of operating in harsh environments are needed in order to prevent disasters caused by structural or system functional failures due to increasing temperatures. Most existing temperature sensors do not satisfy the needs because they require either physical contact or a battery power supply for signal communication, and furthermore, neither of them can withstand high temperatures nor rotating applications. This paper presents a novel passive wireless temperature sensor, suitable for working in harsh environments for high temperature rotating component monitoring. A completely passive LC resonant telemetry scheme, relying on a frequency variation output, which has been applied successfully in pressure, humidity and chemical measurement, is integrated with a unique high-k temperature sensitive ceramic material, in order to measure the temperatures without contacts, active elements, or power supplies within the sensor. In this paper, the high temperature sensor design and performance analysis are conducted based on mechanical and electrical modeling, in order to maximize the sensing distance, the Q factor and the sensitivity. In the end, the sensor prototype is fabricated and calibrated successfully up to 235oC, so that the concept of temperature sensing through passive wireless communication is proved. 


   



    This paper aims to develop a prototype for a web-based wireless remote temperature monitoring device for patients. This device uses a patient and coordinator set design approach involving the measurement, transmission, receipt and recording of patients’ temperatures via the MiWi wireless meter iot solution. The results of experimental tests on the proposed system indicated a wider distance coverage and reasonable temperature resolution and standard deviation. The system could display the temperature and patient information remotely via a graphical-user interface as shown in the tests on three healthy participants. By continuously monitoring participants’ temperatures, this device will likely improve the quality of the health care of the patients in normal ward as less human workload is involved.


   



    Background


    During the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003, hospitals became treatment centres in most countries. Because a patient’s core body temperature is one vital parameter for monitoring the progress of the patient’s health, it is often measured manually at a frequency ranging from once every few hours to once a day [1]. However, such manual measurement of the temperature of patients requires the efforts of many staff members. In addition, when the patients suffer from conditions that result in abrupt changes of the core body temperature, e.g., due to infection at a surgical site after surgery, the staff on duty will not know such a temperature change occurred until the next temperature measurement. Such a delay may lead to patients being unnoticed while their health conditions worsen, which is dangerous because a difference of 1.5 degrees Celsius can result in adverse outcomes [2]. Furthermore, there is always a need to have a monitoring system to improve the quality of health care [3], such as temperature monitoring of elderly and challenged persons using a wireless remote temperature monitoring system.


   



    Body temperature can be used to monitor the pain level of a patient following an operation [4] or after shoulder endoprosthesis [5]. In some cases, the tissue transient temperature was monitored during microwave liver ablation [6] for the treatment of liver metastases. Instead of using a temperature sensor, pulse-echo ultrasound [7] was used to visualize changes in the temperature of the patient’s body. In addition, a non-contact temperature-measuring device, such as a thermal imaging camera [8], was successfully used to detect human body temperature during the SARS outbreak. However, it can be quite expensive to equip each patient room with a thermal imaging camera. In addition, there are a few wireless temperature measuring solution (e.g., CADIT?, Primex?, and TempTrak?) on the market that are used to monitor and store a patient’s temperature for medical research by using body sensor networks [9]. Most of these systems consist of an electronic module and a temperature-sensing device. The systems include a stand-alone electronic module with a display screen that allows the temperature sensor data to be transmitted over a secure wireless network.


   



    However, these systems can be difficult to reconfigure to suit the current database system used in the hospital. In addition, the current systems using short message service (SMS)-based telemedicine [10] systems with hardware equipment were developed to monitor the mobility of patients. However, proper hardware and software to manage the messages and the patient’s temperature for display on mobile phones are not widely available.


   



    Hence, a medical device to continuously measure the body temperature of patients using a wireless temperature receiver [4,11,12] is required. With such a wireless temperature sensor system, nurses will no longer have to manually measure the temperature of patients, which will free their time for other tasks and also reduce the risk associated with coming into contact with patients with contagious diseases, such as SARS. The readings will be transmitted wirelessly to the central nurse station, where they can be monitored by the staff-on-duty. In addition, the current and past history of the body temperature measurements can be stored in an online database, which allows the medical staff to access the database when they are not in the hospital.


   



    To the best of our knowledge, a MiWi wireless (besides using the Zigbee[11]) temperature-monitoring system using a patient and coordinator set design that provides remote internet access to the temperature database has not been reported in any publication. The objective is therefore to develop and implement a prototype temperature-monitoring system for patients using a MiWi wireless remote connection to the nurse’s station for frequent real-time monitoring. The temperature monitoring system was designed based on a proposed patient and coordinator set design approach. The proposed temperature-monitoring system for use in normal ward will likely to improve the quality of the health care of the patients as the nursing workload is reduced. In this paper, the discussion on medical regulations and policy will not be included.

Many LED lighting suppliers will say that full-spectrum LED grow lights are the best option for growing plants because they mimic the natural light from the sun. The argument goes:

“Plants have grown under sunlight for millions of years. Why would we want to change what mother nature knows is best?”

Well, we want to let you know that there is no such thing as a full-spectrum LED grow light.

There, we said it.

But before we get a flood of messages from concerned growers wondering what all the confusion is about, let’s first uncover what full spectrum means. Then we’ll let you in on the truth about full-spectrum LED grow lights so you can make the best grow light choice for your facility.

What is a Full-Spectrum LED Grow Light?
A full-spectrum LED grow light is simply a marketing term that implies that your grow light closely resembles light from the sun. This marketing term comes from the concept of “full-spectrum light,” which in recent years has been used to refer to electromagnetic radiation from the UV to infrared wavebands.

The History of the Full-Spectrum LED Grow Light
The full-spectrum commercial LED grow light is the newest evolution of an already confusing term. Originally, full-spectrum light described the only real full-spectrum light source, the sun.

Over time, the term began to take on other characteristics of sunlight. The commercial lighting industry began using the name “full-spectrum” to sell lights that produced a Color Rendering Index (CRI) over 90. Humans perceive colors more accurately under light sources with a CRI over 90, much like how we see colors in our natural world under daylight. This was a beneficial feature for human environments such as offices, outdoor spaces, and others.

With the advent of horticultural lighting, companies once again began to borrow the term. Only this time, they claimed that full-spectrum LEDs could reproduce the effects of sunlight for plants.

Thus, the full-spectrum LED grow light was born. Unfortunately, lighting for plants is not quite that simple.

Problems with Full-Spectrum LED Grow Lights
There are many issues with the concept of full-spectrum LED grow lights. For starters, just because you name something, doesn’t make it true. This rhetoric may have made sense for lighting designers interested in selling lights so humans could see, but plants require light to feed, grow, and live.

There are three major problems when talking about full-spectrum grow lights:

Full-Spectrum Grow Lights Aren’t Optimized for Plants
Full-Spectrum Grow Lights Don’t Include the Full Solar Spectrum
Full-Spectrum Grow Lights Are Not Dynamic Like the Sun
We’ll briefly look at these problems with full-spectrum grow lights one-by-one, so you can understand how deep the roots of this problem run:

1. Full-Spectrum Grow Lights Aren’t Optimized for Plants
A major problem with many full spectrum vertical grow light is that they are designed to give the appearance of daylight without being custom-tailored for rigorous plant growth.

It’s the reason why we at LumiGrow coined the phrase, “PAR is for plants and Lumens are for humans.” Not all wavelengths of light are optimal for photosynthesis. Plants photosynthesize electromagnetic radiation in the 400 to 700 nanometer range, known as Photosynthetically Active Radiation or PAR. So, plants don’t care how bright your light fixture appears to you.

Still, most full-spectrum lighting companies build fixtures with this visual appeal in mind.

When you hear that the diodes in your full spectrum grow light are 3,000k to 4,500k, or 5,000k+, this degree of Kelvin (K) refers to how “cool” or “warm” your light is in appearance.

Our understanding of plant photobiology has come a long way. We understand much more about plants than to be using human lighting metrics to design our grow lights.

Our goal as growers is to improve the lighting characteristics most important for plant growth. This means not only getting enough PAR light, but also the right mix of light spectra, which brings us to problem #2.

The thinking behind many full spectrum LED grow lights on the market is that by creating a spectral distribution similar to sunlight, your plants will grow well. A decent theory, except that full spectrum grow lights are not actually similar to the sun.

We can see below that the sun’s radiation includes much more than the visible or PAR wavebands.

Sunlight itself is complex, and many scientists are still working to understand it today. You can see that sunlight also contains ultraviolet (UV) and infrared light (as well as x-rays, radio waves, and others, but we’ll leave those alone for now).

Although PAR is the most important light for photosynthesis, plants still respond to radiation outside of the PAR spectrum. For instance, UV light elicits protective compounds in plants similar to the way humans become tanned in the presence of UV.

Plants also use a type of infrared light called “far-red light” to induce a shade avoidance response, causing them to stretch and can induce early flowering.

To create a light source that elicits plant response the same way the sun does would be too costly and downright impossible given current grow light technology. Nor would you want to create such a grow light, which takes us to problem #3.

3. Full-Spectrum Grow Lights Are Not Dynamic Like the Sun
Not only would it be too costly to create an actual full spectrum quantum board grow light, but if such a thing even existed, its performance would still not accurately reflect what’s happening in nature.

The sun’s spectrum is in constant flux due to changes in weather or its position in the sky relative to earth. In the graphic above, you can see how sunlight spectra change throughout the day or in different weather conditions.

Because of this phenomenon, it’s best to think about the interaction between sunlight and plants as a continually changing process.

If you hang your full spectrum grow lights in a greenhouse, you will still reap the benefits (and disadvantages) of this natural process from the sun. But if you take those same full-spectrum lights and hang them indoors, they will not behave like the sun.

Photomorphogenic responses by plants are co-regulated, which means that certain expressions of the plant may turn on or off based on the amount of light within one waveband relative to another.

Photosynthesis depends upon the absorption of light by photoreceptors and pigments in the leaves of plants. The most well-known of these pigments is chlorophyll-a, but there are many accessory pigments that also contribute to photosynthesis.

The relative light absorption of chlorophyll pigments as shown in the graph to the right is one of the reasons why red light has become popular among LED grow lights. Not all PAR light contributes to photosynthesis equally, though we now understand that other wavebands of light such as green, do play an important role in this process.

Since photoreceptors in plants also have their own ranges for light absorption, they co-regulate processes that create plants’ form and structure depending on the spectral mix they receive.

For instance, higher ratios of blue light can induce more robust root growth, more favorable plant biochemistry, and a hardier structure. But these effects may not be as pronounced when more red light is introduced.

Thus, the ever-changing spectrum of the sun is constantly signaling to plants to change their form and structure based on the natural conditions of the environment.

But before you rush and begin moving your grow room outdoors, let’s consider why plants don’t need the full spectrum of sunlight. For starters, plants don’t need UV or infrared light to live. Also, in a controlled environment, plants are given ideal conditions to grow in and often don’t need to compete with other species to live.

Plants only require light in the 400 to 700-nanometer range to photosynthesize. So, you’ll want to choose a grow light that produces your desired results, most often higher yields and better quality for your plants.

What is the Best Light Spectrum for Plant Growth?
By now you must be wondering:

“If I can’t mimic sunlight, then what light spectrum should I use?”. The answer is both simple and quite complex.

Plants only require PAR light for photosynthesis. So, if your grow light is optimized within the PAR spectrum, you’re going to get the most bang for your buck when it comes to minimizing electrical costs while maximizing plant health.

Beyond PAR, it’s important to choose a light spectrum that’s:

best for the environment you’re growing in (greenhouse or indoors)
tailored to your plant’s growth phase (propagation, vegetative, flowering, or finishing)
or specific to the cultivar being grown
Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights vs. Other Grow Light Options
It should be clear by now that there are no real standards around full samsung lm301b grow light. Full-spectrum is simply a term used to sell you a simple idea.

Although you cannot mimic sunlight, you can use light spectrum to your advantage.

Luckily, there are many grow lights available with designs intended to do just that. So, let’s uncover your options so you can pick the best grow light for your cultivation.

Narrow Spectrum LED Grow Lights
Narrow-spectrum LED grow lights use a higher ratio of narrow-band LEDs. These grow lights most often have a pink or purplish hue since they are optimized for the blue and red PAR wavebands.
These types of pink grow lights have been popular since the early days of LEDs for horticulture. Though this doesn’t mean they are outdated by any means.

In greenhouse environments a narrow spectrum is almost always desired. The sun already fills out a full spectrum, so it makes sense to put most of your energy into wavelengths that are most optimal for photosynthesis.

Also, because of the added efficiency of red diodes versus other colors, you will get more bang for your buck when it comes to energy efficiency.

Broad-Spectrum LED Grow Lights
Broad-spectrum LED grow lights have a higher ratio of broad-band LEDs. These lights are white in appearance, though there are no actual white wavelengths. The white hue is a mix of blue, red, and green wavebands.

These grow lights also don’t claim to mimic the sun, but they will effectively replace the sun to drive high yields and premium quality in any environment.

Our broad-spectrum has been enriched with red and blue peaks to drive robust photosynthesis and plant structure while emphasizing the green waveband to be versatile with any crop type or cultivation environment.

Recommended for indoor environments, except in specialized cases where narrow-band lighting is preferred.

Adjustable Spectrum LED Grow Lights
These modern LED grow lights allow for precision control of your plants. By adjusting your grow light spectrum wirelessly, it’s possible to speed up flowering times, improve your plant’s biochemistry, or customize your plants’ structure to root better and be more easily managed.

Here at the Strategist, we like to think of ourselves as crazy (in the good way) about the stuff we buy, but as much as we’d like to, we can’t try everything. Which is why we have People’s Choice, in which we find the best-reviewed products and single out the most convincing ones. (You can learn more about our rating system and how we pick each item here.)

And while we’ve written about lots of landscaping gear before — including garden hoses and leaf blowers — here, we’ve rounded up the best garden tillers as praised by the most enthusiastic reviewers on Amazon. 

More than 40 percent of reviewers describe this electric garden tiller as powerful. One reviewer, who used this on a flower bed that hadn’t been tended to in decade, said, “It powered through everything, the roots of old rosemary shrubs, weed stems, larger chunks of old mulch, it ground them all up and dug deep into the dirt and mixed it all up nice.” Another reviewer, working with hard clay soil, writes, “It practically cut through concrete and was able to go to a depth of 6-8.” But reviewers with soft soil like it too: “The soil itself was fairly soft and unchallenging, but even at that, I was shocked at how quickly this tiller busted it up into a surprisingly fluffy soil.” Many also say it’s easy to operate and appreciate that it comes almost completely assembled. Plus, it’s electric, which is a huge selling point for many. “Unlike my gas ones though, it’s easy to turn it off, and it actually starts right back up again, doesn’t stink, and you don’t run out of gas halfway through … so far has made short, albeit back breaking, work of tilling up my garden,” explains one reviewer. The only fear one reviewer has is that it has “almost has too much power, so you have to be careful when you hit a rock or thick root as you can break a tine or overheat the motor; but the quick release stop works great.”

“I didn’t have high expectations for this product considering its low price, it being electric, and the toughness of the dirt where I live,” writes one reviewer, but their fears were eased once this tiller arrived. “As soon as I pressed the power button, this thing took off like a rocket. I live in north Georgia, right at the North Carolina line and our soil here isn’t all that friendly when it comes to landscaping or digging because of the thick red clay and large natural stones. This tiller dug in without any issue.” And much like our best-rated tiller, this one from Earthwise also gets a lot of praise for its smaller size, especially for those with small gardens or flower beds. “Used this to till for a 20x20 foot wildflower plot,” one reviewer writes. “Did a great job of cutting through the fairly thin turf and the clay soil, tilling down a few inches.” Another says, “It was very easy to put together and has just the right amount of power needed in a flower bed.” And one says, “There is enough power to even work through the hard clay we have.” The flip side, however, is that “It takes more passes than a full size tiller because it is small, but overall I still think it was easier because it is just so easy to use.”

“This thing really is the little roto-tiller that could,” one reviewer writes of this Sun Joe machine. “We have VERY heavy clay soil that is full of rocks/stones and roots ranging from pencil thickness to several inches in diameter. This bad boy took it all on no problem. It simply chucks the rocks out of the way.” And though it looks like a toy, one reviewer swears, “This machine is a BEAST. I tilled up a hundred square feet of rock-hard ground that is a clay and river cobble mixture to a depth of six to eight inches in short order.” Many say this is also the ideal tiller for a small garden. “My vegetable garden is about 20 by 35, it is a rear tine tiller for something around that size,” one says, while another used it to till their 360-square-foot “garden area in an hour or less.” And while many reviewers prefer electric tillers to gas ones because they don’t require multiple cranks to start up and you don’t have to fuss with mixing gas and oil to fuel it, one downside is needing to plug in with a cord. However, it’s not a dealbreaker. As one reviewer explains, “The cord is a pain, but I have found a way to control it and don’t have to worry about having enough gas in the gas cans.”

This Sun Joe electric garden tiller is nearly the same as the one previously mentioned, but it’s got a slightly more powerful motor with 13.5 amps, rather than 12. And according to one reviewer, “No regrets paying more for the 13.5 amp motor.” They describe it as a beast, explaining, “My backyard had a mulched area that was kept in disarray by the previous owner. I wanted to get rid of the iris, weed and other undesirable plants. This tiller shredded the area pulling out the weed and the roots.” Others agree that the extra power gets any size job done. “I tilled ground that was clay and compacted with rocks, buried pieces of wood, fabric pieces decomposing, beer bottles,” one writes, adding, “The tiller cut through this like butter.” Another says, “I did an area about 40x25 in no time on our first nice day, and it never lacked for power.” And even though it packs a punch, it is still easy to handle, according to more than a quarter of reviewers. One reports it “handles as easily as a vacuum cleaner albeit more bouncy.” One word of warning, since this tiller is not cordless: You’ll need “AT LEAST a 14-gauge extension cord … Long runs over 50-feet will need 12-gauge which isn’t cheap but nice cables to have anyways.”

While reviewers admit this tiller isn’t powerful enough to break through new ground, they do say it’s ideal for mixing up soil in their flower beds. “I have 200 sq ft of 4x4 raised beds and this is perfect for turning over the soil in the whole box or just a space between plants,” says one reviewer. Another who calls this “a kitchen mixing machine for the soil” says, “It’s not a tractor, it instead is great for breaking up soil in one spot, like if you want to plant something like a rose bush and you need to break up the soil and/or mix in soil amendments.” Another compares it to an egg-beater, because “it loosens dirt adequately to about a 4-inch depth and keeps me off my aging knees.” The fact that it’s cordless keeps this tiller lightweight and easy-to-operate, too. Reviewers say batteries last between 30 minutes and an hour, enough for these smaller projects, though one reports that one charge “made it for 2+ thorough passes of a 15X3 ft space.”

“This little machine will dig to China if you let it,” says one reviewer, and 75 percent of reviewers give this Mantis gas tiller five stars. One reviewer, with “decades of experience with Mantis tillers,” says, “You really can convert an established lawn into a plantable bed without first scraping off the sod” with this thing. Another says that despite the power, it’s still “very easy to make it till or cultivate.” They continue, “Rocks I couldn’t see did not stop this mean machine.” And while some note it works in their small gardens, others have taken this to their entire backyard: “We did an entire backyard border with the Mantis tiller and it did an amazingly excellent job of prepping the soil. It was powerful, dug deep for planting shrubs and whatever we wanted. Cleaning it is a breeze and its light weight makes it very enjoyable to use.” As for fuel, one user says, “I can till my entire garden on less than a tank.”

“It is light, but, man, does it dig in,” one reviewer says of this four-cycle gas tiller. One says it’s “Great for gardening, installing landscaping beds, trenching for rock borders, Hell, I even used mine to dig a 3-foot deep trench for a drain-tiled downspout.” The main advantage of this four-cycle tiller, compared to the two-cycle above, is that it doesn’t require a mix of oil and gas. That means the set-up is pretty quick. “Thirty minutes out of the box to tines in the ground. Oiled, gassed up, and primed, it started on the second pull; bonus, it’s quiet,” one reviewer writes. Another says it “has the torque and ease of operation wrapped into one unit,” and others say it also offers more control. “It really digs in when tilling and In an established garden, you can get right in around your plants without destroying half the garden.”
Bob Crewe is an expert on garden tillers, but when he needed one at his suburban Chicago home, he rented it.

That's about to change.

"This might be the season when I finally pick one up," said Crewe, who works for Power Equipment Direct, an online home equipment store. "If you already have one waiting for you, you're more apt to go out and get to it."

The advantages of owning or renting a mini tractor -- or its smaller cousin, a cultivator -- are many.

Tillers and cultivators are useful for turning soil, mixing in compost and fertilizer for soil amendment and loosening soil to help water reach plant roots.

Gardeners are firing up their tillers now to prepare flower beds and vegetable gardens for planting. This year's early spring has brought strong demand for tillers, said Joseph Cohen, CEO of Snow Joe, a garden equipment company headquartered in Edison, N.J.

"No one expected to be in the garden this early. I've never seen demand this early," Cohen said.

In summer, tillers and cultivators can weed between vegetable rows, said Barbara Hastings, senior manager of marketing and communication for Troy-Bilt brand of outdoor equipment. The company is headquartered in Valley City.

Come fall, tillers plough garden waste back into the soil to decompose over the winter, Hastings said.

Many homeowners like to rent a tiller just for a few hours, and let someone else deal with maintenance and storage. Fees at tool rental companies can run from $29 for a two-hour rental of a small tiller up to $85 for a 24-hour rental of a large unit. Rental companies typically ask for a deposit.

But, when you rent a tiller, transportation is your headache. That means lifting a heavy unit in and out of the car, and protecting the car trunk from dirt and mud, Crewe said. You may also need to wash and dry the tiller before returning it.

If you rent a tiller every year, the fees will soon equal what a new tool would cost. Plus, owning a tiller means no more working with one eye on the clock.

Flowers are harvested with sharp knives or electric pruning shear. On standard carnations two to three nodes and on spray carnations three to four nodes are left on the shoots for the next flowering. Flowers should be cut in the early morning when plants are turgid. Standard carnations are harvested as open flowers or in the bud stage. Spray carnations are harvested with two flowers open and the rest showing color. Flowers are handled carefully to avoid breakage and bruising. It is important to expose flowers to a 40° to 48°F environment as soon as possible to reduce plant temperature. Precooling the flowers maintains quality and increases longevity.

Above all else, investment in a pair of high-quality pruning shears is mandatory. One manufacturer even has a special hand grip designed for left-handed people, swivel handles and a model with blade removal for maintenance. For miniature roses, there are smaller versions of these pruning shears which rely on a smaller, straight-edged blade surface. For removal of large woody canes at the bud union, a pruning saw will allow access for flush removal. Attempts to use pruning shears for these jobs usually result in damage to the bud union. It is best to approach cane removal with a proper saw designed specifically for the job. For cutting large-diameter canes a pair of lopping shears with 30- or 45-cm handles can facilitate the cutting without placing too much pressure on the hands. Again, attempts to cut large-diameter canes with pruning shears will require a lot of extra strength. Lopping shears with long handles solve the strength problem and make the cut clean and sharp. Invest in a small wire brush (about 5 cm wide by 75 cm deep) to help remove loose bark from the bud union. Such treatments can often encourage basal breaks and stimulate new growth since growth often finds it impossible to break through the heavy tree-like bark encountered on older bushes. Finally, save on profanities while pruning by buying a good strong pair of leather gauntlet gloves or hand gloves that are puncture-proof. There is nothing as irritating as a thorn under the nail to cause a string of words rarely heard in a rose garden!

Harvesting is done manually when the capsules are dry at the ends of the branches. Pruning shears are used to cut branches and also remove inflorescence containing 15–20 capsular fruits. Once harvested, the fruit are carried in baskets to a land or a warehouse where, after drying, they will be processed in specific equipments or manually. The machines separate the capsules from the seeds and classify them for subsequent packing in polyethylene bags, where they remain preserved for more than five years in perfect condition without any plant protection treatment (Cruz et al., 2008).

Human beings disseminate all kinds of pathogens over short and long distances in a variety of ways. Within a field, humans disseminate some pathogens, such as tobacco mosaic virus, through the successive handling of diseased and healthy plants. Other pathogens are disseminated through tools, such as portable mini electric garden shears, contaminated when used on diseased plants (e.g., pear infected with fire blight bacteria), and then carried to healthy plants. Humans also disseminate pathogens by transporting contaminated soil on their feet or equipment, using contaminated containers, and using infected transplants, seed, nursery stock, and budwood as mentioned previously. Finally, humans disseminate pathogens by importing new varieties into an area that may carry pathogens that have gone undetected, by traveling throughout the world, and by importing food or other items that may carry harmful plant pathogens. Examples of the role of humans as a vector of pathogens can be seen in the introduction into the United States of the fungi causing Dutch elm disease and white pine blister rust and of the citrus canker bacterium, in the introduction in Europe of the powdery and downy mildews of grape, and, more recently, in the rapid spread of sorghum ergot almost throughout the world (Fig. 2-20).

The primary fungi of an ambrosia beetle are abundant in a gallery only when larval stages are present (Kajimura and Hijli 1992). Thus, the best isolates of primary fungal symbionts can be made a month or two after initial infestation. Galleries are exposed by sawing thin sections from the infested bole. It is important to work as quickly and as aseptically as possible, using alcohol-flamed saws, wood chisels, and/or pruning shears. Adult insects can be removed, and visible fungal growth within the several-millimeter-diameter gallery can be isolated using sterile fine forceps. Thin slices or chips of galleries should be preserved, dried, and mounted, or mounted directly on slides with fixative mounting medium, such as lactophenolaniline blue, for later study.

Ambrosia fungi in the genus Corthylus and most Xyleborus species generally form a thick, whitish palisade layer on the walls of galleries if eggs and/or larvae are present. That fungal growth can be isolated easily by streaking or spot plating on isolation media (see next section on “Culture”).

Fungal growth usually is not so evident on the gallery walls or larval cradles of xylomycetophagous insects; thus, small slices and chips of wood should be removed aseptically for plating. Slices or fragments of galleries can be placed aseptically in a sterile moist chamber (Appendix I) to encourage fungal growth in the absence of actively feeding larvae, so that primary ambrosia fungi can be isolated, often within a few days, before contamination from saprobic fungi.

Live beetles trapped in flight or taken from galleries are difficult to handle because of their small size and smooth cylindrical shape. A simple vacuum apparatus consisting of a sterile micropipette tip with a small aperture attached to a rubber hose fixed to a vacuum pump or vacuum line allows one to pick up individual beetles and transfer them easily from dish to dish or to sterile glass slides for dissection.

Beetles can be surface disinfected to reduce the presence of nonmycangial microbes by washing in sterile 0.1% HgCl2 solution or dilute sterile bleach (NaHCl2) for 2–4 minutes, followed by several rinses in sterile water. Investigators can also free adult beetles of external nonmycangial microbes by placing them alternately in plates of sterile wet filter paper for 18 hours and then on dry sterile filter paper for 6 hours. Several transfers typically remove most external microbes. Individual beetles can be stored on sterile moist filter plates for months at refrigerator temperature until needed for dissection and isolation. Prevention of dehydration appears to be the critical factor for keeping them alive during long-term storage.

The process of harvesting in Stevia is very important to obtain the highest leaf biomass yield with the most desirable quality and quantity of the sweet compound of steviol glycosides with a desirable taste. The time to harvest Stevia crop varies dependent on the place and time. The first harvest generally can be done 4 months after cultivation and the subsequent harvest is suggested to be done once every 3 months or 40–60 days later. Generally, three commercial harvests can be done every year. Optimum biomass and steviol glycoside quality and quantity can be obtained at the stage of flower bud initiation. It is suggested to cut the branches about 5.0 cm above the ground with tree branches powered pruning shears before stripping the leaves. As the tips of the stems contain as much steviol glycoside as the leaves, they can be added to the harvest yield. It is recommended to cut the stems leaving about a 10 cm portion above the ground to induce the emergence of new flushes, for the subsequent harvest (Kassahun et al., 2013). Benhmimou et al. (2017) reported that the optimal yield depended on the harvesting time and the yield of summer harvesting (August) was higher than that of autumn harvesting (October).

One of the important processes after crop harvesting is drying the Stevia leaves in the best way. The herb should be immediately dried after harvesting by placing on a net or screen. The plants can be dried in full sun, shade, or by passing hot dry air over the plant leaves. This drying process with heat lasts for 24–48 h to obtain completely dry leaves at 40°C–50°C. It should be noted that excessive heat or longer drying time could lower the stevioside level of dried leaves. A dehydrator machine can also be used to dry the Stevia leaves (Singh et al., 2014; Zewdinesh et al., 2014). Samsudin and Aziz (2013) reported that the quality of Stevia leaves dried in a hot air dryer at 50°C temperature for 6 h was better in terms of sweetness, nutrient content, and color of leaves. After applying any of the drying methods, the dry leaves should be packed and stored in a dry and cool place for further utilization (Zewdinesh et al., 2014).

Azaleas are pinched to increase shoot numbers, plant size, floriferousness, and also as a mechanism for timing flowering. The first mentioned reasons will be discussed in this section on vegetative development, while the use of pinching to schedule flowering will be considered in the section on flowering.

The final size of azalea plants will be largely determined by the number of times plants are pinched, if growing conditions are satisfactory. In many places, azaleas are only pinched once each year, but the plants could be pinched every 3 to 4 months if faster increases in size were desired. This can only be done under protected conditions or in climates where low temperatures are not encountered. The expenses encountered in indoor culture must be considered, but new vegetative growth could always be occurring under the proper environmental conditions. A night temperature of 65°F and long days will enhance vegetative growth. Fertilization programs would have to be more precise than under conditions where plants are only pinched once annually. Carbon dioxide injection has also been suggested for maximum growth.

Pinching can be done manually or chemically, but most plants are pinched with powerful battery operated pruning shears or electric clippers. Some propagators use the pinch as a way to get cuttings so the plants serve dual roles as stock plants and eventually as flowering plants. If such a practice is followed then the pinch involves the removal of shoots about 3 to 4 inches long. If cutting production is not an objective of pinching, then only the tips of the shoots need to be removed. More leaf axils then remain, so one might expect more lateral shoots than when a harder pinch is made.

There are different chemicals that have been used to pinch azaleas. The fact that azaleas are multibranched plants makes chemical pinching worthwhile. Fields of azaleas that might require weeks to be pinched can be chemically pinched in hours, so labor costs are significantly reduced. The crop will be more uniform in development as well, as all plants are pinched at the same time.

Off-Shoot-O was the first chemical pinching agent of economic importance (Stuart, 1967, 1975) but its use has declined. Effectiveness of Off-Shoot-O is influenced by temperature, relative humidity, stage of apex development, and cultivar. The chemical works by physically damaging the apex, and the material has to come in contact with the apex for pinching to occur. One can tell within about 24 hours if shoot tip damage has occurred.

Dikegulac (Atrimmec) was the second prominent chemical pinching agent. Its mode of action is biochemical, so the chemical does not have to come in direct contact with the apex. The material is translocated through the phloem, and DNA synthesis is affected (Bocion et al., 1975; de Silva et al., 1976). It is not affected as much by the factors that influence the effectiveness of Off-Shoot-O (Larson, 1978). The effectiveness of Atrimmec cannot be determined until at least 2 weeks after its application. Lateral shoot initiation and development are delayed compared to those on plants that are manually pinched, and new leaves are often very narrow. Some azalea growers do not use Atrimmec alone, but prune the large, long shoots to get the desired plant shape, break apical dominance, and then apply Atrimmec 2 days later to stimulate lateral branching.

Other new chemicals are being tried, but EPA label clearance is lacking at this time.

Every mycologist has his or her preferred collecting paraphernalia, and to a degree preferences depend on the taxa being collected. At least four items are required for collecting macrofungi: (1) a tool for cutting and digging, (2) a container or wrapping material for each specimen, (3) a larger container for transporting specimens in the field and back to the lab, and (4) a label for each specimen.

A thick-bladed, moderately sharp knife can be used to cut woody substrata or dig in soil. Some collectors carry both a knife and a trowel for collecting sporocarps from soil. Different types of fungi occurring on wood require different types of collecting equipment. An ax or hatchet often is needed to extract wood to a depth sufficient to enable identification of the host if it is unknown. However, a mallet and wood chisel, a heavy sheath knife, or a folding knife with a locking blade are usually sufficient for removing the fungus. A pair of electric bypass pruning shears and a folding pruning saw are also helpful for cutting smaller diameter twigs and branches to a uniform length. Care must be used to avoid undue damage to the plant if collecting from a living tree (Figs. 8.10 and 8.11).

Peptides are smaller versions of proteins. Many health and cosmetic products contain different peptides for many uses, such as their potential anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, or muscle building properties.

Recent research indicates that some types of peptides could have a beneficial role in slowing down the aging process, reducing inflammation, and destroying microbes.

People may confuse peptides with proteins. Both proteins and peptides are made up of amino acids, but steroids powder contain far fewer amino acids than proteins. Like proteins, peptides are naturally present in foods.

Due to the potential health benefits of peptides, many supplements are available that contain peptides that manufacturers have derived either from food or made synthetically.

Some of the most popular peptides include collagen peptides for anti-aging and skin health, and creatine peptide supplements for building muscle and enhancing athletic performance.

In this article, we discuss the potential benefits and side effects of peptide supplements.

Peptides are short strings of amino acids, typically comprising 2–50 amino acids. Amino acids are also the building blocks of proteins, but proteins contain more.

Peptides may be easier for the body to absorb than proteins because they are smaller and more broken down than proteins. They can more easily penetrate the skin and intestines, which helps them to enter the bloodstream more quickly.

Scientists are most interested in mechano growth factor peptide, or those that have a beneficial effect on the body and may positively impact human health.

Different bioactive peptides have different properties. The effects they have on the body depend on the sequence of amino acidsTrusted Source they contain.

Some of the most common peptide supplements available are:

Collagen peptides, which may benefit skin health and reverse the effects of aging.
Creatine peptides, which may build strength and muscle mass.
Some people may take other peptides and peptide hormones to enhance athletic activity. However, the World Anti-Doping Agency have banned many of these, including follistatin, a peptide that increases muscle growth.

Collagen is a protein in the skin, hair, and nails. Collagen peptides are broken down collagen proteins that the body can absorb more easily. Taking collagen peptides may improve skin health and slow the aging process.

Some studiesTrusted Source indicate that dietary food supplements that contain collagen peptides can treat skin wrinkles. Other research indicates that these supplements may also improve skin elasticity and hydration.

Peptides may stimulate the production of melanin, a skin pigment, which may improve the skin’s protection against sun damage.

Topical anti-aging cosmetics can also contain Melanotan Peptide, which manufacturers claim can reduce wrinkles, help skin firming, and increase blood flow.

Improve wound healing
As collagen is a vital component of healthy skin, collagen peptides may facilitate faster wound healing.

Bioactive peptides can also reduce inflammation and act as antioxidants, which can improve the body’s ability to heal.

Research is currently ongoing into antimicrobial peptides, which may also improve wound healing. Having very high or very low levels of some antimicrobial peptides may contribute to skin disorders, such as psoriasis, rosacea, and eczema.

Prevent age-related bone loss
Animal research links a moderate intake of collagen peptides with an increase in bone mass in growing rats who also did running exercise.

The study may point to collagen peptides being a useful way to counteract age-related bone loss. However, more research is necessary, especially on humans.

Build strength and muscle mass
Some researchTrusted Source on older adults indicates that collagen peptide supplements can increase muscle mass and strength. In the study, participants combined supplement use with resistance training.

Creatine peptides may also improve strength and help to build muscle.

While fitness enthusiasts have been using creatine protein powders for many years, creatine PEG MGF peptide are increasing in popularity.

These particular peptides may be easier for the body to digest, which means they may cause fewer digestive problems than creatine proteins.

For healthy individuals, peptide supplements are unlikely to cause serious side effects because they are similar to the peptides present in everyday foods.

Oral peptide supplements may not enter the bloodstream as the body may break them down into individual amino acids.

In one studyTrusted Source where females took oral collagen peptide supplements for 8 weeks, the researchers did not note any adverse reactions.

However, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) do not regulate supplements in the same way they do medications. As a result, people should exercise caution when taking any supplements.

Topical creams and ointments containing peptides may cause skin symptoms, such as skin sensitivity, rash, and itching.

Individuals should always buy from a reputable company and discontinue use if adverse reactions occur.

Also, it is a good idea to speak to a doctor before taking peptide supplements or using topical products that contain peptides.

Those who are pregnant, breastfeeding, taking medications, or living with a medical condition should avoid using peptides until they speak to their doctor.
The timing and dose of peptide supplements will vary, depending on the type and brand.

Always follow the package instructions when taking peptide supplements or using topical peptide creams or lotions. Never exceed the recommended serving size. Discontinue use and consult a doctor if adverse reactions occur.
Peptides are naturally present in protein-rich foods. It is not necessary to take peptide supplements or use topical sources of peptides.

However, some people may wish to use collagen peptides with the aim of slowing down the aging process. Others may take creatine peptides to build muscle and strength.

There is still limited evidence to indicate that these products are effective, and much more research is necessary to assess their efficacy and safety thoroughly.

Research into peptides is in the early stages, and in the future, scientists may discover health benefits of different types of peptides. Until then, people should exercise caution when taking any supplement and discuss the potential benefits and risks with their doctor beforehand.

Protein–protein interactions (PPIs) execute many fundamental cellular functions and have served as prime drug targets over the last two decades. Interfering intracellular PPIs with small molecules has been extremely difficult for larger or flat binding sites, as antibodies cannot cross the cell membrane to reach such target sites. In recent years, peptides smaller size and balance of conformational rigidity and flexibility have made them promising candidates for targeting challenging binding interfaces with satisfactory binding affinity and specificity. Deciphering and characterizing peptide–protein recognition mechanisms is thus central for the invention of peptide-based strategies to interfere with endogenous protein interactions, or improvement of the binding affinity and specificity of existing approaches. Importantly, a variety of computation-aided rational designs for peptide therapeutics have been developed, which aim to deliver comprehensive docking for peptide–protein interaction interfaces. Over 60 peptides have been approved and administrated globally in clinics. Despite this, advances in various docking models are only on the merge of making their contribution to peptide drug development. In this review, we provide (i) a holistic overview of peptide drug development and the fundamental technologies utilized to date, and (ii) an updated review on key developments of computational modeling of peptide–protein interactions (PepPIs) with an aim to assist experimental biologists exploit suitable docking methods to advance peptide interfering strategies against PPIs.
Delivering drugs specifically to patient neoplasms is a major and ongoing clinical challenge. Function-blocking monoclonal antibodies were first proposed as cancer therapies nearly four decades ago. The large size of these molecules hindered their commercial development so that the first antibody or antibody-fragment therapies were only commercialized for cancer therapeutics and diagnostics 20 years later [1,2]. A classic development during this period, a radiolabelled peptide analog of somatostatin (SST) was used to target neuroendocrine tumors expressing the SST receptor instead of targeting the receptor with an antibody [3]. The concept of using a peptide as a targeting moiety for cancer diagnosis and treatment has since led to current peptide drug developments in both academia and pharmaceutical industries. In addition to cancer treatments, melanotan 2 peptide that mimic natural peptide hormones also offer therapeutic opportunities. Synthetic human insulin, for instance, has been long exemplified for its clinical efficacy for diabetic patients [4].

In comparison to small molecules, such as proteins and antibodies, peptides indeed represent a unique class of pharmaceutical compounds attributed to their distinct biochemical and therapeutic characteristics. In addition to peptide-based natural hormone analogs, peptides have been developed as drug candidates to disrupt protein–protein interactions (PPIs) and target or inhibit intracellular molecules such as receptor tyrosine kinases [5,6]. These strategies have turned peptide therapeutics into a leading industry with nearly 20 new peptide-based clinical trials annually. In fact, there are currently more than 400 peptide drugs that are under global clinical developments with over 60 already approved for clinical use in the United States, Europe and Japan.

Protein–protein interactions (PPIs) are the foundation of essentially all cellular process. Those biochemical processes are often comprised of activated receptors that indirectly or directly regulate a series of enzymatic activities from ion transportation, transcription of nucleic acids and various post-translational modifications of translated proteins [7]. Drugs that bind specifically to such receptors can act as agonists or antagonists, with downstream consequences on cellular behavior. Peptides and small molecules that interfere with PPIs are thus in high demand as therapeutic agents in pharmaceutical industries due to their potential to modulate disease-associated protein interactions. Accumulating evidence has suggested that better identification of targetable disease-associated PPIs and optimization of peptide drug binding characteristics will be key factors for their clinical success [8].

Unfortunately, understanding the molecular recognition mechanism and delineating binding affinity for PPIs is a complex challenge for both computational biologists and protein biochemists. This is largely because small molecules are superior in binding to deep folding pockets of proteins instead of the larger, flat and hydrophobic binding interfaces that are commonly present at PPI complex interfaces [9]. Although monoclonal antibodies are more effective at recognizing those PPI interfaces, they cannot penetrate the cell membrane to reach and recognize intracellular targets. In recent years, peptides with balanced conformational flexibility and binding affinity that are up to five times larger than small molecule drugs have attracted enormous attention [10,11]. Cyclic peptides, for example have small molecule drug properties like long in vivo stability, while maintaining robust antibody-like binding affinity and minimal toxicity [12]. In this review, we will focus two aspects of peptide drug development: (i) Fundamental technologies utilized for peptide drug developments to date, and (ii) key developments of computational modeling techniques in peptide–protein interactions (PepPIs). Recent topics and basics in conventional docking of PPIs will also be covered with an aim to assist experimental biologists exploiting suitable docking methods to advance peptide interfering strategies against PPIs.

Retrograde ureteroscopy has recently gained a broadened indication for use from diagnostic to a variety of complex minimally invasive therapies. This review aims to look at the recent advances in the instrumentation and accessories, the widened indications of its use, surgical techniques and complications. With minimization of ureteroscopic instruments manufacturers are challenged to develop new, smaller and sturdier instruments that all will also survive the rigors of surgical therapy.

Ureteroscopy is defined as retrograde instrumentation performed with an endoscope passed through the lower urinary tract directly into the ureter and calyceal system.[1] With the addition of actively deflectable, flexible endoscopes the indications for ureteral access sheath have broadened from diagnostic to a variety of complex minimally invasive therapies. Current ureteroscopic treatments include intracorporeal lithotripsy (by far the most common), treatment of upper urinary tract urothelial malignancies, incising strictures, evaluation of ureteral trauma, and repairing ureteropelvic junction obstructions.[2,3] With improved instrumentation and incorporation of technologies such as a large endoscope working channel and active tip deflection, the evolution of surgical techniques have broadened while the complications noted with ureteropyeloscopy have actually decreased significantly.

The application of flexible fiber ureteroscope was first reported by Marshall in 1964. A 9F fiberscope manufactured by American Cystoscope Makers (Pelham Manor, NY) was passed into the ureter to visualize an impacted ureteral calculus. Subsequently, Bagley, Huffman, and Lyon began work at the University of Chicago to develop an improved flexible fiberoptic ureteropyeloscope in the 1980s.

The optical system consists of fiberoptic light bundles created from molten glass. Each glass fiber is cladded with a second layer of glass of different refractive index to improve the internal reflection, light transmission and also the durability of the endoscope. When the fibers are bundled randomly, they provide excellent light transmission for illumination, but no image. However, if the fibers are placed in a coherent fashion, the light from each fiber will coalesce to transmit images. Small lenses placed proximally and distally enable a telescopic effect with image magnification, increased field of view and focusing ability. A recent modification is the splitting of the light bundle distally to enable a more central placed working channel and better distribution of light within the working field of view.[5]

The deflection mechanism of the flexible ureteroscope permits maneuverability within the collecting system of the kidney. This deflection is usually provided by several wires running down the length of the endoscope and attached to a lever which is manually operated. Manipulating the lever will deflect the tip. If the tip moves in the same direction of the lever, the defection is described as “intuitive”- i.e. down is down and up is up. In the past, prior to 1992, deflection was active at the tip and secondary deflection along the shaft was passive. To obtain lower pole access, the urologist would maximally deflect and advance the tip of the endoscope.[6] The secondary deflection was achieved by the endoscope passively buckling at a set designed point along the shaft. In 1992, Karl Storz (KSEA, Tuttilegan, Germany) was able to downsize the flexible endoscope from 9.8 Fr to 7.5 Fr while maintaining the same 3.6 Fr working channel. This milestone event allowed all urologists to more easily pass the endoscope and in so doing broaden the therapeutic applications. The current instruments have continuous controlled dual deflection with increased downward and upward deflection up to 270 degrees, referred to as “exaggerated deflection” in both directions. This deflection is performed with a single more ergonomic lever as compared to the cumbersome two separate levers employed by the ACMI DUR 8 (Gyrus Inc, London, England). The radius of deflection is also broader, thereby enabling more maneuverability and permitting placement of instruments in the lower pole. The most modern endoscopes also incorporate a shock absorbing system (a form of secondary deflection) which is located proximal to the active deflecting system and allows for gentle rolling of the distal end for approximately ten centimeters enabling access more deeply into the calyces.[7]

The working channel permits placement under direct vision of a variety of accessories including graspers, baskets, wires and laser fibers through the endoscope. All current endoscopes have a channel of at least 3.6 Fr which allows the use of instruments up to 3 Fr while still permitting concurrent irrigation. The composition material of the accessory influences tip deflection. For example, graspers and baskets with a shaft composed of polyamide tend to be stiffer and inhibit deflection as compared to Teflon sheathed accessories.[8]

Many ureteroscope repairs are due to damage to the working channel from malfunction or incorrect use of the holmium laser. This is often a technical issue when the fiber firing end is located too close to the endoscope tip. The new-generation Storz endoscopes incorporate a bead-like sequence of hollow ceramic rings in the distal end of the working channel for 1.5 cm. This protects the instrument from thermal or electrocautery damage and allows the endourologist to work closer to the tumor, stricture or stone while using laser energy.

White and Moran reported the need for major urteroscope repairs after only 12 endoscope usages.[9] Afane et al., demonstrated that flexible ureteroscopes from four major manufacturers required major repairs after only 15 procedures or 13 h of usage.[10] Traxer et al., from Paris performed 50 flexible ureterosopies using the Karl Storz Flex-X ureteroscope. They evaluated the maximal active ventral and dorsal deflection, irrigation flow at 100 cm H20 and number of broken optical fibers. The maximal ventral deflection deteriorated from 270 degrees initially to 208 following the last procedure; the maximal dorsal deflection decreased from 270 to 133 degrees. The irrigation flow at 100 cm H20 decreased from 50 to 40 after the last procedure. They concluded that the need for repair occurred less frequently with the newer generation endoscopes and when used by an experienced endourologist.[11] In general most centers can employ these instruments for approximately 50 cases between repairs with damage and breakage occurring most often during sterilization.

Irrigating fluids are employed to clear the optical field of view and to cool the tip of energy-delivering devices. The irrigant is delivered through the same channel used for working instruments, often through a side arm adapter (Urolock – Boston Scientific, Natick Mass. and Check flow, Cook Urologic, Spencer, Indiana). The simplest and most cost-effective means of delivering continuous irrigant is to employ two 60 cc syringes connected to a three-way stopcock with arterial line tubing. Normal saline is the irrigation standard solution for diagnostic ureteral stent and lithotripsy. When electrocautery is employed sorbitol or small aliquots of sterile water may be used.[12]

Accessories include guide wires, stone retrieval devices, access sheaths, electrodes, laser fibers, biopsy forceps, etc. With regard to guide wires, the PTFE -coated stainless steel guide wire and the Zebra wire (PTFE coated with nitinol core – Boston Scientific, Natick Mass) are useful to help facilitate endoscope tip access to the ureter in routine cases. The Terumo Glide wire is particularly useful in cases of difficult ureteral access. It is employed as an access guide wire and not a working guide wire. This means that the very lubricious coating is useful in bypassing an obstruction, and can facilitate ureteral catheter placement, while the slippery nature of this nitinol design frequently does not aid in placing the larger endoscope.

Several new unique guide wires are now available including the Sensor wire (Boston Scientific, Natick, Mass.). The Sensor guide wire, for example, has a smooth hydrophilic nitinol-based distal tip, a kink-resistant body made of nitinol alloy core, and PTFE-coated stainless steel jacket which adds stiffness and helps prevent endoscope buckling during endoscope placement into the ureter. This guide wire also has a flexible proximal tip for atraumatically back loading the wire through the working channel of the ureteroscope.[13,14]

The ureteral access sheaths can facilitate repeat ureteroscopic access to ureter. These sheaths range from 12-14 Fr and enable repeated passage of the ureteroscope without a guide wire. The advantages include easy endoscope placement and possible decreased intrarenal irrigant pressures. The disadvantages include over-dilation for placement, false sense of security, and potentially increased rate of ureteral stricture from prolonged use.[15]

Recently, flexible digital ureteroscopes have been introduced. These endoscopes have an integrated light source and distal digital chip-based camera. The distal chip camera system requires a larger outer endoscope diameter which is an issue for access, while the image quality is equivalent to ten times the pixel resolution of standard fiber optic endoscopes. Since these instruments do not require a separate camera head or light cord, they may potentially be more durable.

More studies are needed before concluding that these more costly additions are superior to the conventional fiber optic flexible endoscopes. Early issues include digital processing of colored light, especially red light, and problems with chip stability during laser lithotripsy where the created acoustic percussions distort the digital images.

The intramural ureter is the narrowest segment and can prohibit endoscope passage. Guide wires often are passed into the ureteral orifice cystoscopically and then directed into the renal pelvis with fluoroscopic assistance. These “safety” guide wires straighten the ureter and facilitate both the dilation of obstructed segments with balloon or graduated dilators and the placement of internal stents.[17]

Historically, the intramural ureter required dilation for endoscope access. Currently, the small-diameter flexible ureteroscopes often have less than 7.5 F tip diameter, and can be passed without any formal dilation. Use of a dilator to facilitate passage of the ureteroscope beyond the intramural tunnel is recommended when the ureter is narrow or restrictive. This is common in the young male population. Otherwise, the use of such dilators or operative sheaths is optional and generally not required.[18]

One access method is to employ a 10 Fr dual lumen catheter first over the initial access guide wire. This aids in both dilating the intramural ureter and in facilitating passage of a second “working” guide wire. This scheme is useful when the ureter is tortuous or J-hooked distally. The orifice can also be dilated with a balloon dilator (most commonly 12 F for access) and a second working wire passed beside. The flexible ureteroscope is next passed over the working guide wire in a monorail fashion into the ureter and the working guide is removed. Alternatively, the smallest diameter ureteroscopes (7.5 F tipped) can be passed directly into the ureter under direct vision without guide wire assistance. Fluid irrigation facilitates flexible ureteroscope optical visibility. Although automatic pumps are available for this purpose, hand irrigation is often preferred.[19]

In a recent prospective study of 460 consecutive upper-tract endoscopies at our center, “no-touch” direct access ureteroscopy (i.e. placement of the endoscope into the ureter under direct vision without the assistance of a guide wire and without dilation) was successfully performed in the majority of patients. This wireless form of flexible digital ureteroscope system or “no touch technique” is technically challenging but eliminates the potential trauma, mucosal irritation and inadvertent manipulation of stones or tumors caused by guide wires and is particularly helpful when mapping the collecting system for mucosal lesions or upper tract transitional cell cancers.[20]

Another access technique is to pass the tip of a guide wire through the endoscope just beyond any blockage, or kink in the ureter and then follow with the ureteroscope until it rests beyond the obstruction. This will open or straighten ureteral segments, often allowing easier passage.

Lower-pole intrarenal access performed with a flexible ureteroscope is often challenging and commonly requires both active and passive flexible ureteroscope deflections. To place the tip of the endoscope into the lower pole, the instrument must first be actively deflected and then advanced so as to allow the shaft below to buckle. This maneuver, termed secondary deflection, is required in 60% of traditional flexible ureteroscopies if a complete inspection is to be attained. The increased active tip deflection offered by new-generation flexible ureteroscopes significantly decreases the need for secondary deflection and enhances the surgeon's ability to inspect all aspects of the renal collecting system. Fluoroscopic guidance is frequently employed to provide a road map of the intrarenal collecting system. The flexible ureteroscope is directed from calyx to calyx, and frequently dilute contrast material is injected through the working channel of the endoscope to help ensure the entire collecting system is mapped.[21,22]

If electrocautery is to be employed, special attention to the guide wire choice helps prevent intraoperative complications. If a standard stainless steel guide wire is used, electrical current may inadvertently arc to the wire during cautery use and cause excessive ureteral coagulation with subsequent fibrosis and stricture formation. This can be prevented by using an insulated guide wire such as a Teflon-sheathed nitinol Zebra wire (Boston Scientific, Natick, Mass.).

Most ureteroscopic lithotripsies are performed as day surgery outpatient procedures. Patients are discharged on prophylactic oral antibiotics and analgesics. Anticholinergic medications and alpha-blockers may be used to minimize symptoms of frequency, urgency, and discomfort often associated with ureteral stents; however, individual patient tolerance varies. Choosing the correct stent length (based on the ureteral length) and optimal positioning help to minimize unpleasant symptoms.

In general, the minor complication rate from ureteropyeloscopy has decreased based on refined technique, experience of the operators, and prompt treatment or prevention of intraoperative problems. Prophylactic parenteral antibiotics, careful guide wire placement, minimization of excessive ureteral dilation, and postoperative ureteral stenting all impacted on the rate of postoperative problems. This, combined with better surgical training and improved instrumentation, resulted in this very positive trend.

Major intraoperative complications
The major complication rate associated with therapeutic visual ureteroscope series has decreased markedly and currently occurs in less than 1% of all procedures. As with the minor problems, major complications occur less frequently for basically the same reasons – better surgeon skills and improved instrumentation. However, when they do occur treatment is often more complex. In addition to major intraoperative problems, other complications that occur during upper urinary tract endoscopy may begin as minor events and, if left untreated or if addressed incorrectly, can progress to more serious conditions.

Major ureteral wall perforations occur infrequently and can be the product of a heavy-handed endoscopist and improper application of the ureteroscope. These complications are more common with the semi-rigid ureteroscopes rather than the flexible ureteroscopes. The forceful positioning of a semi-rigid ureteroscope above the iliac vessels, particularly in young male patients, is associated with a significant risk of ureteral wall trauma unless the collecting system is dilated or the ureter has been stented prior to endoscopy. Routine use of a double-J stent is not necessary in most patients but is recommended when unusual difficulty is encountered or when extensive strictures are noted. It is essential to note that if the endoscopic maneuvers are difficult, the surgeon can only be rewarded with an easier time in the future if he does not push the procedure but rather places a stent and returns another day. Usually, one to two weeks of stenting greatly facilitates ureteroscopy, particularly if proximal access is desired.

Care must be taken when treating stones in the ureter. Ureteral wall perforation with stone migration into the defect can lead to formation of a stone granuloma and/or ureteral wall stricture. In addition, attempts at extracting a particularly large stone with a basket rather than fragmenting it can lead to a ureteral perforation or avulsion. The general rule is if a stone or fragment is too large to pass on its own, trying to extract it with an accessory without reducing its size with an endoscope lithotrite has inherent risk.[25]

When distal ureteral avulsion is noted, ureteroneocystostomy repair can be performed, with a psoas bladder hitch if necessary to create a tension-free anastomosis. A Boari bladder wall flap will increase the proximal extent of the repair to the middle third of the ureter. These repairs are performed most commonly over a ureteral catheter with perianastomotic drainage. This can be performed acutely at the time of the injury or in a staged fashion after proximal percutaneous drainage is obtained at the time of the injury.

If the entire devitalized ureteral segment is inadvertently brought into the bladder, it is of no value in subsequent repair. Percutaneous renal drainage should be obtained immediately at the time of this type of ureteral injury. Subsequent therapy is based on either bowel interposition (i.e., ileal ureter) or renal auto transplantation to a pelvic position. Both procedures are complex and should be performed in a staged fashion after a period of healing Table 2.

A brief HISTORY
So what is a stand up pouch? Simply put, it’s bag/pouch that has the ability to stand on its own. The original stand up pouch design was actually patented in 1968. However, it wasn’t until the patent expired did the stand up pouch revolution begin. The stand up pouch design and construction have evolved over the years to include innovative design features like the reclosable zipper, convenient tear notches for easy opening, and some styles have a window for easy viewing. Today, the stand up bag is the go-to packaging choice for many well-known brands. Companies are using these airtight bags for candy packaging, coffee packaging, tea packaging, pet packaging, beauty product packaging, and more.
 

The CONSTRUCTION
A stand up pouch is made of multiple layers of barrier materials that have been laminated together to create one continuous sheet. The barrier materials and bag construction determine the durability and shelf life of your packaging. The chosen materials also determine the potential risk of bag punctures, leaks, and tears. Therefore, choosing a higher quality spout bag will ultimately mean fewer problems down the road. There are typically 2-3 layers in the construction of a stand up pouch. There is an outer layer, a middle layer, and an inner layer. Each layer provides a barrier of protection to protect and preserve the contents from environmental elements including moisture, UV light, oxygen, and external odors.

The OUTER Layer
Copious Bags® offers several exterior options; natural kraft paper, black kraft paper, clear, and our matte frosted exterior. The outer layer of the pouch communicates your brand message and what draws a customer to your product. The natural kraft paper pouches have an earth-friendly, all natural, small-scale production look and feel. Nothing says NATURAL like kraft paper. Whereas, the black kraft paper stand up pouches have a powerfully alluring look that is combined with the natural feel and texture of kraft paper. But, keep in mind, kraft paper is not used solely for its good looks. Quality kraft paper is strong, extremely durable. It has a resistance to punctures and tears. The porous, natural texture of kraft paper makes it ideal for labeling and hand stamping. Our matte frosted stand up pouches have a very captivating and compelling look that will enhance any product. The greatest benefit of our matte frosted stand up pouches is that they are water-resistant. They too can be customized with labels, hand-stamped with permanent ink, and hot-stamped.

When it comes to packaging your products, you want to avoid using cheap, poorly constructed kraft paper pouches. Insist on high-quality natural kraft paper rather than inexpensive imitation kraft paper.  Insist on Copious Bags®. There is no substitute.

The MIDDLE Layer
This middle layer can be made of different film materials, but most commonly used is either (AL) aluminum foil, (VMPET) a metalized film, (PET or PETE) polyethylene terephthalate.

(AL) Aluminum Foil – an aluminum foil layer barrier keeps your product fresh for approximately 20 months, compared to 13 months when metalized (VMPET) barrier film is used. Aluminum foil film has a much higher end appearance and offers better protection. Copious Bags® uses only aluminum foil to line our bags, never metalized.

(VMPET) – a metalized film often used in lower quality packaging. Although it does offer barrier protection, this cheaper material does not offer the long-term protection that aluminum foil does. This metalized film has a metallically appearance and is not very appealing to the customers when the bags are opened.(PET OR PETE) – a thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family that’s used in packaging for food and beverages, personal care products, and many other consumer products.

The INNER layer
The inner layer a stand up pouch is extremely important, especially when using them for food packaging. The inner lining is the material that comes into direct contact with your product. The most common material used for stand up pouches is (LLDPE) linear low-density polyethylene. This material is used widely throughout the packaging industry because it is FDA approved and is safe for direct contact with food.

The inner layer is also what makes Copious Bags® stand up pouches heat sealable. Heat sealing your bags gives your product a tamper-evident seal, thereby giving your customer the confidence and assurance that the product has not been opened or tampered with.

The GUSSETED bottom
The expandable bottom gusset is what gives a stand up pouch the ability to stand freely on its own. Copious Bag® stand up gusset bags have a very sturdy, u-shaped gusseted which allows the pouch to stand prominently without collapsing.

Make the TRANSITION
The stand up pouch is dominating the packaging world. Top brands are transitioning from traditional rigid packaging such as jars, canisters, tins, and boxes to the flexible stand up pouch. The bags are stored flat whereby saving valuable retail space. And, because they are extremely lightweight, companies are saving a ton in shipping and freight costs.
STAND UP POUCHES ARE VISUALLY APPEALING:
Stand up pouches give you the option to really get creative with your packaging design. Unlike a static label, you can personalise the entire pouch from top to sides and back. This enables you to lay out the font, graphics, and colours in a way that reflects your brand and helps you stand out from the crowd.

This way, no matter which way the pouch is displayed, customers will unmistakably recognise your product.

 

STAND UP POUCHES KEEP YOUR PRODUCT FRESHER FOR LONGER:
By fitting out your stand up pouch with a resealable zip lock, up to three layers of protection (so as to keep out moisture, UV light, oxygen, and external odours), and a gusset on the bottom – your products will stay fresher for longer, while giving your customers the freedom to consume at their own pace.

If you’re packaging coffee, the inclusion of a degas valve will help release oxygen while preserving the flavour-enhancing gases. Thus, ensuring the beans maintain their freshness and last longer.

 

STAND UP POUCHES ARE LIGHTWEIGHT AND FLEXIBLE:
Want your customers to enjoy your product on the go? This is one of the greatest benefits of stand up pouches for food packaging.

Flexible packaging is typically made from plastic or paper, which is considerably lighter than glass and cardboard boxes. So, whether your customers are heading to work, on holiday, or just lounging about at home – your customers can enjoy your goods any time they like.

Furthermore, since the packaging is less rigid, it takes up far less space. So it can be stored in small compartments,central seal bag, lockers, and small pantries. Again, even greater convenience for your customers!

 

IDEAL FOR A VARIETY OF PRODUCTS:
Whether you produce confectionary, baking goods, coffee, small toys, or snacks, it doesn’t matter. Stand up pouches are flexible enough to store a wide range of products from a variety of industries.

So, even if you currently rely on glass or cardboard packaging, depending on the type of product you sell, there’s a good chance you can make the switch to lightweight flexible packaging. You may be surprised at how economical, affordable, and user-friendly your new packaging will be.

Best of all? It doesn’t cost you much to do a trial test run.

At The Pouch Shop, we have a low minimum order amount for all our pouches, which enables you to print a variety of test designs and help you decide whether to proceed. This way, you avoid the risk of producing a large batch that doesn’t quite meet your needs, thus you save time and money.
Our selection of Kraft pouches will help you choose the right paper pouch packaging to communicate eco-friendly values of your brand and to deliver the highest quality products to your customers.

Kraft paper is durable, resistant to tearing and offers good protective properties. It blocks the UV light and humidity, which helps to ensure the freshness of your products by preventing oxidation and other undesirable chemical reactions that would lead to deterioration of your goods.

Kraft paper stand up pouches are also decidedly eco-friendly. They require less materials and less energy in their production and leave less waste in the manufacturing process. Due to being very light and compact, they are also very easy to transport and store.

We offer classic Kraft stand up pouches, as well flat bottom bag and various other designs of Kraft paper pouches. We also have pouches made partially of Kraft paper but incorporating a window or a whole clear side which allows the consumer to see exactly what they are buying while that product remains sealed for freshness and protected. Various designs available in our store also include Kraft resealable pouches such as Kraft zipper pouch bag.

For extra protection, we have pouches that combine aluminium foil with Kraft paper. Such construction ensures the strongest protection and durability, without sacrificing the classic, traditional look of the 3 side seal bag.