When it comes to electricity, safety has always been a major concern, but thanks to the development of ground fault circuit interrupter GFCI outlet (GFCIs), the risk of being severely shocked or electrocuted is greatly reduced. According to the Electrical Safety Foundation International (ESFI), electrocutions are down 83 percent since the 1970s when GFCIs were introduced. These quick-to-react outlets are required by law in new home construction, and it’s a good idea to put them in older homes as well. Read on for must-know info on GFCIs—what they are, how they work, and where to install them.
In your home, the flow of electricity is contained within wires covered with rubber- or plastic-based insulating material. When everything goes as planned, the electrical current runs safely through the insulated wires to switches and wall plate outlets and on to the many appliances and gadgets we take for granted today. But in its raw state, electricity has a “mind” of its own, and left to its own devices—as evidenced by most lightning strikes—it makes a beeline for the ground.
A ground fault is the occurrence of electricity taking an unintended path to the ground. It occurs when the electrical current escapes the insulated wires, as a result of a damaged cord or faulty wiring, and flows through a different conductor. If that different conductor is a human being, the result can be a serious electrical shock or electrocution. Because water is an excellent conductor of electricity, the risk of a ground fault occurring is greater in areas of your home where water is commonly used, such as near a kitchen sink.
The singular purpose of a new GFCI outlet is to prevent electrical injury to humans, something regular outlets are not equipped to do. A standard household outlet features two, three-prong plug-in slots, while a GFCI outlet features the same plug-in configuration plus two buttons on its face: a “TEST” button and a “RESET” button. The rules requiring the installation of the GFCI outlets in new construction has expanded over the years to include more applicable locations:
Normally, electrical current flows at a uniform rate through wiring, but when a ground fault occurs, the flow of electricity surges as it jumps to the unintended conductor. A GFCI outlet contains a sensor that monitors the flow of the electrical current through the wires, and when it senses a ground fault (in electrical terms, “fault” means any variation from the normal current), the GFCI, which also contains an internal switch, shuts off the flow of electricity in the outlet.
While you may still receive a painful shock, the South America GFCI outlet will prevent a prolonged surge of electricity, the type that injures and kills. A standard outlet, like the type in your bedroom, doesn’t have a sensor.
The National Electric Code (NEC) requires the installation of GFCI outlets in new construction in areas where electrical outlets are in close proximity to water. Older homes are not required to have GFCI outlets unless the wiring is being updated, but it’s a good idea to install them anyway.
The NEC requires GFCIs on all exterior and bathroom receptacles (another term for outlets). GFCIs are also required on all receptacles serving kitchen countertops. In laundry rooms and utility rooms, GFCIs should be installed on outlets within six feet of sinks, washing machines, and water heaters. They should also be installed within six feet of a wet bar and in garages and unfinished basements.
In bedrooms, living rooms, and other areas where water fixtures are not found, regular outlets are fine—and they are still installed in today’s new homes. The ESFI estimates that approximately 43 million homes in the U.S. still do not have GFCIs installed in “wet” rooms, and notes that as many as 47 percent of today’s electrocutions could be prevented in older homes if GFCIs were installed.
A DIYer with basic knowledge of electrical wiring may be able to replace an existing outlet with a decorative GFCI plate (instructions below), but only when swapping out a three-prong outlet—two plugin slots and a hole. Outlets with only two slots and no third hole indicate the presence of older wiring that should only be replaced by a licensed electrician.
The other caveat is that only outlets connected to three wires are suitable for DIY replacement. Outlets with three attached wires (remove the outlet plate to determine the number of attached wires) indicate that the outlet is located at the end of an electrical circuit (a wiring loop that starts and finishes at the breaker panel). An outlet with five attached wires is located in the middle of an electric circuit, and the wiring process is more complicated—only a licensed electrician should replace those outlets.
Replacing an existing outlet at the end of a circuit (as explained above) is not particularly difficult, but the task requires some experience. You should understand how outlets are wired and how electrical current travels from the breaker panel through each electrical circuit (wiring loop) in your home. Some communities prohibit homeowners from doing their own wiring, so check with your local building authority before you start.
During the recent 2020 code review, panel members of the National Electrical Code (NEC) approved changes to ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) protection. Those changes dramatically reduce the dangers associated with electrical hazard and shock. The most significant change is the increase of amp protection ratings across all receptacle outlets, both indoor and outdoor, wherever GFCI protection is required. 
The 2020 change
Code-making panel 2 (CMP 2) updated text to read, “All 125-volt through 250-volt receptacles installed in the locations specified in 210.8(A) (1) through (11) and supplied by single-phase branch circuits rated 150 volts or less to ground shall have ground fault circuit interrupter protection for personnel.” In layman’s terms, the NEC removed amp values across all amp-rated receptacle outlets requiring GFCI protection in the areas listed in this section. 
The rationale for change
NEC 2017 language only accounts for 15- and 20-amp receptacle outlets for dwelling units. During 2020 code review meetings, panel members agreed that hazards always exist; if 15- and 20-amp receptacle outlets present a hazard, that hazard also exists on 30-amp and higher receptacle outlets. However, it was difficult to understand the likelihood of a hazardous occurrence when weighed against expanded requirements. Recent home-based electrocution accidents – a 10-year-old girl behind an energized appliance, a child in Oklahoma retrieving a pet behind a clothes dryer, a 10-year-old Houston boy playing hide and seek — helped panel members realize the need for change. In light of these tragic events, we now have a requirement that sets a higher standard across more areas of the Code, though there are some exceptions discussed later in this blog.
What might the future hold?
The NEC mandates GFCI protection in many areas of the home: bathrooms, garages, outdoor receptacles, crawl spaces, basements, kitchens and anything within six feet of a sink or water source. While that may seem like a lot, the entirety of a home is not covered. The reality is when people have a problem with a tripped circuit, it's entirely possible they’ll use an extension cord to plug into a receptacle outlet that's not GFCI protected. Doing so does nothing to eliminate the original hazard potentially caused by the device in use. I hope that NEC members account for the human factor and require GFCI coverage throughout the home during the next code review.
The 2020 change
The NEC expanded GFCI protection for dwelling units with basements both finished and unfinished. 
The rationale for change
Often afterthoughts that present unique hazards, basements are typically not as well maintained as other areas of the home. Further, environments are often wet and damp, and moisture is a great conductor. These code updates help ensure that accidents due to factors such as leakage current and contact with water are considerably lessened or eliminated. 
What might the future hold?
Many rooms in a home are already required to have GFCI protection. While it feels like the most logical code progression, others in the industry still pushback on requiring GFCIs throughout a home claiming financial concerns or installation problems. As with the parental language update, I believe this code change can inspire discussions to include GFCIs throughout the home. 

The NEC expanded GFCI protection under Article 210.63(A) for HVAC equipment and Article 210.63(B) for indoor service equipment and indoor equipment requiring dedicated space.
The rationale for change
Equipment location is at the crux of this update. While HVAC equipment in the basement is covered now that all basement circuits are GFCI protected, HVAC equipment located in attics and other areas would likely not have GFCI protection. CMP 2 recognized that many HVAC areas are typically tight working spaces where technicians perform justified energized work (they can’t troubleshoot a de-energized circuit). In essence, the update assures equipment requiring service has a GFCI-protected receptacle outlet for ready access.  
What might the future hold?
Because this is the NEC’s first venture into expanding 210.63, I expect some inspectors and contractors may not see eye to eye on code language. Industry discussions across the country and during future review cycles will help the NEC make future improvements. 
The NEC updated the Code for outdoor electrical outlet plates supplied by single-phase branch circuits rated 150 volts to ground or less, 50 amps or less. Key to this update: it extends beyond receptacle outlets to include all outlets. Now all hard-wired equipment falls under the Code’s purview. 
The rationale for change
One downfall of the electrical business is that it’s more reactive than proactive, with accidents often the catalyst for change. Numerous incidents inspired this code change, including an accident involving a 12-year-old boy who jumped over a fence and touched an AC condenser unit with an electrical fault. The outer metal housing was electrified and the child was fatally electrocuted immediately upon coming in contact with the condenser and fence simultaneously.  
What might the future hold?
GFCI technology is unforgiving in that it’s built to detect even the slightest power variance, and when expanded to include outlets impacting new types of loads, questions arise. With GFCIs installed, leakage-current trips may be near constant, rendering large equipment unusable. In the future, I hope industries rethink products with acceptable leakage current, hertz and frequency values to reduce future compatibility issues.
Further, this change will likely spur discussions related to current GFCI requirements focusing only on receptacle outlets. Hardwiring equipment does not eliminate the electrical hazard. I venture someone will propose public inputs during the next code-review cycle to
The NEC reviewed all locations with a GFCI requirement and aligned with Article 210.8. Updates were made in many locations to include text, such as “in addition to the requirements of 210.8” and similar, to clarify language and eliminate misinterpretation.  
The rationale for change
The NEC included Article 210.8(B) for other than dwelling units in 1993. Before its inclusion, builders relied on requirements in later chapters of the Code (chapters five through seven), for safety guidance. For example, RV Park GFCI requirements added in 1978 aligned with 210.8’s 15- and 20-amp receptacle outlet GFCI protection philosophy at that time. NEC 2017 created some confusion when 210.8(B) increased GFCI protection requirements beyond 15- and 20-amp receptacle outlets for other than dwelling units. This presented a challenge: a chapter two requirement applied a generally wider level of GFCI protection. This conflicted with chapter five, which has less coverage of GFCI protection.
The correlating committee recognized similar conflicts exist across industries and formulated a task group that challenged every code panel to look at their GFCI requirements and attempt to align them with 210.8’s 50-amp increase.  
What might the future hold?
Each code panel performed their review; some made changes, others did not. There is room for discussion in future revisions of the Code regarding shock hazards in the special other than dwelling unit applications. I believe the NEC will soon increase its focus on GFCIs and hopefully add clarity as each application in chapters five through seven approaches GFCI protection differently.  
While representatives in agriculture and RV industries have valid concerns about nuisance tripping, I believe the NEC should revisit Article 547 for agricultural buildings and Article 551 for RVs and RV parks to address valid shock hazard concerns and consider increasing GFCI protection to 50 amps.
The rationale for change
Farming and RV industries rely on circuits that operate at well over 20 amps, yet no safety requirements exist. Much of the equipment used in these industries can be quite old with leakage current a serious concern. In my opinion, the Code lacks parity in how safety requirements exist in some industries and not in others. That must change.
The studies needed to promote change exist. The University of Iowa and the University of Nebraska have uncovered many incidents where farmers lost their lives due to faulty agricultural electrical equipment. Further, RV “hot skin,” a situation where the entirety of an RV’s outer housing becomes energized due to electrical faults, can kill in an instant, as was the case when a young boy died when touching an RV. If RV parks and farms running 30- to 50-amp receptacles without GFCI protection is not deemed a concern worth addressing, how can anyone claim running 30- to 50-amp receptacles outside of dwelling units is a hazard? Common sense dictates both are hazards and change is necessary. 
What might the future hold?
I appreciate that equipment compatibility issues on farms and at RV parks may require much time and financial capital to resolve. However, I cannot condone sitting idle as lives are lost. I hope a series of discussions during the next code review cycle inspires commissioning an NFPA Fire Protection Research Foundation study to further understand the implications of expanding GFCI protection beyond 15 and 20 amps in RV parks and farms. Let’s study the problem, understand the challenges and determine solutions that increase safety.

Pressure transmitters are a common and well understood technology especially within the petroleum, petrochemical, refrigeration and fuel gas markets and they are extremely economical compared to other technologies.
Pressure transmitters are a common and well understood technology especially within the petroleum, petrochemical, refrigeration and fuel gas markets and they are extremely economical compared to other technologies. If a level is to be made in an open vessel a pressure transmitter (PT) is placed at the bottom and the head pressure caused by the weight of the liquid can be used to calculate the height of the liquid. Differential pressure transmitters can be used on pressurised vessels using the same principles (9).
Level measurement using pressure transmitters cannot be deployed in primary separators as the change in temperature will impact the measurement, the change in density of the oil during operation will impact the measurement and any fluctuation of the oil/gas differential pressure control valve or pressure disturbances would also impact on the reading.
Portable dP gauges are used to monitor the dP across strainers, online densitometers, DB&B valves, prover interchange valves, and other devices. All pressure gauges shall be equipped with calibration stickers indicating the last test or calibration date and who performed the calibration. The calibration sticker should be clearly visible and constructed of a rugged material. All recordings on the sticker should be made with indelible ink. The dial gauge cover should be clear and abrasive resistant. The pressure gauge should be readable with permanent figures and markings and equipped with a blowout disc for safety. The scale shall be in graduations of no greater than 2 psig with longer graduations at each 5 psig and numbered at not greater than 10 psig intervals. The error at any point on the scale should not exceed ±2 psig. The maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of the dP gauge should be at least equal to the MAWP for the measurement facility.
A differential pressure transmitter is a device that translates physical force to an electrical signal. The most common type of force transducer uses a diaphragm, piston, bourdon tube, or bellows to sense the physical force and various strain/force-sensing devices to convert the deflection of the physical element to an electrical signal. Traditional strain-sensing devices include the following: capacitive cells, piezoresistive strain gauges, piezoelectric quartz material, and electromagnetic devices.
In the United States, companies such as Rosemount, Cameron/Barton, Foxboro, and Ultrasystems have provided transmitters that specialize in safety system pressure measurements. These transmitters may still function successfully on some iPWR designs, but many will have to be reengineered for different mounting configurations, size constraints, and environments. Many iPWR designers, when faced with a modification program, may choose to go with new technologies rather than modifying the old ones. The new technologies may offer advantages in size, redundancy, accuracy, and environmental resilience. Some of these new technologies include microelectromechanical system (MEMS) sensors, fiber optic sensors, and ultrasonic sensors.
In the optical fiber category, a company called Luna Innovations has developed and successfully tested fiber optic pressure sensors, like the one shown in Fig. 6.1, in a research reactor environment. These fiber optic pressure sensors have been shown to operate in radiation environments with flux levels much higher than those compatible with most electronic pressure sensors. With traditional technology, it is necessary to protect traditional electronic gauge pressure transmitter from harsh radiation conditions near the core; this requires the use of long pressure sensing lines, which limit the response time to pressure transients and increase the number of wall penetrations. Luna’s fiber optic pressure sensors are designed to operate in harsh environments. When these pressure sensors were combined with Etalon-based fiber optic temperature sensors providing temperature compensation, drift effects were minimized. The attractiveness of this technology for iPWRs is obvious, with the elimination of sensing lines, the minimization of penetrations, the small size of the sensor, the rapid response to pressure fluctuations, and the operability in high radiation fields. With these attributes, this technology bears merit for primary and secondary side pressure measurement (Dickerson et al., 2009).
Pressure or DPT transmitters have been used to measure liquid levels of open or pressurized tanks, respectively, with proper calibration taking care of the density value of the subject liquid. These types are used for level measurements of boiler drums, all heaters, deaerators, condenser hotwells, condenser surge tanks, and all dosing tanks.
For open tanks, a pressure tapping at a suitable location is connected through the impulse line, to the high-pressure port of the DPT with the low-pressure port open to atmosphere. The pressure (or DP) sensed by the DPT is proportional to the level with a known liquid density (ρ) and force due to (earth’s) gravity (g). With proper calibration, the potential transform can now be used as a level transmitter.
Regarding the pressurized tank or vessel, single-pressure tapping does not serve this purpose as it senses the pressure of the vessel and the pressure of the liquid level. To balance out the vessel pressure, another pressure tapping for sensing it is connected, through the impulse line, to the low-pressure port of a DPT so that the output will only be proportional to the liquid level only with known ρ and g.
Another new technology for pressure sensing is the polymer-derived ceramic MEMS sensor. At the forefront of this technology, a company, Sporian Microsystems, has developed a pressure/temperature sensor made to survive high temperatures (Fig. 6.2). This technology offers a solution for pressure sensing in iPWRs due to its hardy environment survivability and its small size. The small size allows for the installation of redundant units and the measurement of pressure at many points, possibly with fewer penetrations than traditional sensors.
These new technologies have attributes like small size, heat survivability, radiation hardness, fast response, and low maintenance. These attributes are highly valued in iPWR designs for obvious reasons.
The Series-211 differential absolute pressure transmitter can accurately measure positive, negative or differential pressure and send the corresponding 4–20 mA output signal to a recording system. It is not position sensitive and can be mounted in any orientation without compromising accuracy. It also features a power LED, so one always knows when the transmitter is operating. The compact, light-weight design makes installation simple and easy. Two inlets for the pressure connections are located on the front of the unit, labeled “High” and “Low”. For differential pressure measurement, the higher pressure should be connected to the “High” pressure port. For positive pressure, the “Low” pressure port should be left vented to atmospheric pressure. Periodically, it is necessary to recalibrate the gauge to maintain the accuracy. For “zero” gauge, the pressure connection needs to be removed from both pressure ports and to adjust the zero potentiometer until the output is 4 mA. To span the gauge, the full scale pressure to be applied to “High” pressure port and to adjust the span potentiometer until the output is 20 mA. The salient features of the pressure transmitter are compact design, LED power indication, 2-wire design, 4–20 mA output, ± 0.25% accuracy level, 0–90 mmHg pressure range, –25 °C to 70 °C operating temperature ranges, 2-wire output signal and 12–30 VDC power supply.
Drum level is measured by differential thermowell temperature transmitter installed in line with Figures XII/3.5-1(a,b). Note that for drum-level measurement a temperature-equalizing column has been used to ensure that in both limbs of DPTs temperatures are equal, meaning that the densities are equal. So far, the discussion has been about installation and making the two limbs’ temperatures equal. Now level is measured by because there is an incumbent pressure P1 at the top, which needs to be subtracted to get the level. So, finally, one is left with P1 at the top and P1 + pressure due to water head (P) on the other limb. Therefore DP = pressure due to water head, P = h × ρ × g.
For a particular place, g is always constant. So water head P varies with h (level) and density, which in turn depends on temperature. In the drum, incumbent pressure is due to saturated steam pressure, and for saturated steam for each pressure there is a particular temperature. Therefore, saturation pressure is chosen to compensate/correct the density effect. Temperature is a sluggish parameter, so pressure is chosen to compensate.
Degradation of the transmitter’s accuracy and response time (two uncorrelated phenomena) are the two most important consequences of ageing. Ageing caused by heat and humidity can cause the transmitter sealing materials to fail, allowing moisture to enter the transmitter housing. This can cause calibration shifts and high-frequency noise at the transmitter’s output, which can render the transmitter inoperable or unreliable. Though NPP I&C failure data indicates that calibration drift accounts for anywhere from 59% to 77% of all age-related failure in pressure transmitters (fow blockage, fatigue, and other factors accounting for the remaining age-related failures), a survey of the nuclear industry in the early 1990s showed that fewer than 10% of NPP pressure transmitters actually drift out of tolerance and that in a typical two-year fuel cycle only about 1–3% of transmitters suffer calibration failure.
The analog signal operates over a 4–20 mA range (0 to 5 Vdc with a 250 Ω high-precision pull-up resistor). For proper analog signal discrimination, the tertiary device should be equipped with at least a 12-bit ADC converter. Digital signals are preferred over analog signals for accuracy. However, the tertiary device must be able to communicate with the secondary devices using a common communications protocol. The status signals typically are used for indicating block valve status (fully open, fully closed, in travel), generating commands to obtain a sample (activation of sample extractor), and alarm status.
The transmitters should be equipped with a display of the current readings at the transmitter housing in appropriate engineering units. The transmitters should be equipped with both analog and digital output to the tertiary device.
For analog communications to the tertiary device, a 4–20 mA signal is preferred and requires a high-precision 250 Ω pull-up resistor (to convert from 0 to 5 Vdc). The dampening parameters should be turned off or set to its lower limit. For digital communications to the tertiary device, the update interval of the transmitter should be less than or equal to 1 second. The transmitters should be equipped with an appropriate communications protocol and the dampening parameters should be turned off or set to its lower limit.
The sensing lines that bring the pressure signals from the process to the transmitter can become partially or totally blocked due to sludge, boron solidification (PWRs), and other debris in the reactor coolant, causing sluggish dynamic performance in the transmitter. According to NRC data, blockages, voids, and leaks account for nearly 70% of the age-related problems in sensing lines. Nevertheless, the effects of ageing on response time are even less significant than the effects on calibration. The response times of 84% of transmitters tested in a 1994 study written by the author for Nuclear safety were unaffected by ageing. Of the remainder, only 4% delivered response times that could be considered failing.

Getting the best shave comes down to having the best tools for the job. You’ll want to use a good shaving cream, of course, but the most important thing is to choose the right men's razor. A cartridge razor with disposable blades is the method most men learn first (and stick to), and replacement blades are available pretty much anywhere. An electric razor might be best for someone who wants to be as quick and efficient as possible. There are also safety razors, which have been around for more than 100 years and have recently surged in popularity because many feel they provide a better shave — plus, they’re more eco-friendly and economical. And there are straight razors, which are typically the domain of professionals, but may also appeal to passionate shavers because of the unique control they offer. The fact that countless different brands make different models of the same type of razor can make choosing the right one even more overwhelming.
To help folks find the best razors on the market, we asked 14 men’s-grooming experts — including ten barbers — about their favorites and combed through our archives to find other worthy options recommended to us before. The resulting selection of razors (below) features a style for pretty much everyone, including cartridge, electric, and safety razors, along with hybrid styles, and razors to use on sensitive skin. No matter which style of razor you choose, Tony DeAngelis, a co-owner of Blue&Black barbershop in Carroll Gardens, says there are two other important factors for getting a good shave: heat and stretching the skin. As he explains, “heat, whether from running the shower or the sink, allows hair to come off easier, which means less irritation. And stretching the skin while you shave means fewer chances of nicks and scratches, because you’re creating a tighter, smoother surface for the blade to move across.”
Even though cartridge single blade razor for men may be the most ubiquitous (and what most men learn how to shave with), 12 of the 14 experts we spoke with say that a safety razor is actually the best kind to use. The main thing it boils down to is the fact that with a safety razor, you’re shaving with only one blade — many of our experts told us that more blades do not necessarily mean a better shave, and that using multi-blade cartridges can increase the likelihood of ingrown hairs and razor burn. “The safety razor is the absolute way to go,” says Chad Beightol, the owner of New York City–based men’s-grooming store Consigliere. “You’re working with a single blade that is sharp, instead of relying on a multi-blade cartridge that is trying to trap the hair between the blades.” Paul Langevin of barbershop Mildred New York adds, “The single blade minimizes irritation.” Another plus is that safety razor blades (the best of which you can find here) are far less expensive to replace than disposable cartridges, and they don’t generate any plastic waste. The experts do admit that, at first, using a safety razor won’t be quite as effortless as shaving with a Gilette or Shick (and if you’d rather stick to those cartridge razors, there are some on this list, too). But they say most people are quick converts once they get the hang of it. We’ve written about safety razors before, and German razor manufacturer Merkur was the brand that came most recommended. The Merkur 34C remains our experts’ top pick, with many saying it’s an especially good choice for beginners because the short handle makes it easy to maneuver.
Bevel is a newer safety-razor company that both barber Julien Howard and Beightol recommend. You can purchase the twin blade razor for men and blades on their own, but they also have subscription options for scheduled blade replacement, along with a full line of shaving products. The Bevel razor also has a bit of a sleeker, more contemporary look than the others on this list, and a slightly longer and narrower handle that might be more comfortable for some.
Standard safety razors are pretty straightforward: The head of the razor closes around the flexible metal blade, which is then locked into a predetermined angle. This construction works well for most people, but some may benefit from being able to customize the angle at which the blade meets the skin. For someone with sensitive skin, a lower angle will allow for a gentler shave with less irritation. Someone with coarse facial hair, on the other hand, might prefer a more aggressive angle. It all comes down to personal preference, and that’s why Xavier Rodriguez of Fellow Barber and Peter Solomon of Tweed Barbers of Boston both recommend the adjustable Merkur Progress to anyone who thinks their safety-razor shave might benefit from some customization. It has five different blade-angle settings, and you simply twist the dial at the bottom to toggle between them. If you decide this is the razor for you, you’ll want to get some blades for it as well.
Mike Gilman, the owner of the Grooming Lounge, agrees that a safety razor is going to provide the best shave when used properly. But he also notes that using one may simply not be practical for everyone. You need to be a bit more careful with a safety razor, so it’s going to take a little longer to shave; you also need to devote some time to learning proper technique. “For most guys, the method of shaving that works best, and that they are most used to, is shaving with a cartridge razor. The blades and razors are available everywhere, and they’re super-easy to use.” If you want to go the cartridge-razor route, Gilman says it’s wise to stick with a classic. His pick, the Gillette Mach 3, uses a three-blade cartridge, which is a nice compromise between the single blade of a safety razor and the five blades of some of the newest cartridge razors. “I just think the Mach 3 is the way to go,” he says.

Langevin agrees with Gilman that a cartridge razor would be a better choice for “people who don’t want to master shaving with a safety razor.” He likes Harry’s, however, which he says makes a good “disposable-blade system.” Like Bevel’s razors, Harry’s razors and blades are available à la carte, but you can also sign up for a subscription blade-replacement plan through the brand’s website.
Editor’s note: While Amazon sells the women's razor with two blade refills, if purchased from Harry’s, you’ll only get the razor, hence the cheaper price.
Groomer and makeup artist Robert Reyes says that while “safety razors are great for sensitive skin, they can be a bit time-consuming.” So if you’ve got sensitive skin but prefer a cartridge razor, he suggests this Schick model that he personally uses. “It has lubricated skin guards that help protect the skin,” Reyes explains.
For the fastest and easiest shave, an electric triple blade razor for women will likely be the best bet, and some of our experts say that using one can also reduce the occurrence of ingrown hairs. “For those who don’t like the traditional methods, I recommend foil shavers,” says Langevin. Foil shavers have a thin perforated sheet of metal covering the blades; individual hairs are fed through the tiny holes and cut by the blade below. According to Langevin, the resulting shave is the closest you can get with an electric style, and comparable to that of an analog razor. “Foil shavers get almost as close as a traditional razor, sometimes even closer,” he adds. Langevin, barber Karac Ruleau of Mott NYC, and Heather Manto of Austin’s Independence Barber Co. all recommend the Andis Cordless Profoil Shaver — Langevin uses the Andis 17200 and Manto and Ruleau use the slightly older 17150, but they are essentially the same. (The Andis Profoil, perhaps not surprisingly, also appears on our list of the best electric razors). The shaver is designed with commercial use in mind, but Manto says she would recommend it for home use as well. “It helps to pull out ingrown hairs, doesn’t cause razor bumps, and can be used wet or dry,” she says. Adds Ruleau: “It gives you a super-close shave without any razor burn, is light, durable, and inexpensive, and doesn’t require a frequent charge.” But one note from all of our experts: Foil shavers like this aren’t designed to cut long hair and only work on short, “stubble length” facial hair. While that might seem limiting, Manto thinks it makes them a great choice for people who shave regularly.
If you’re looking for an electric option to tackle longer hair (or use on sensitive skin), four experts have told us that Wahl’s Peanut is the best because it has a powerful motor, is easy to maneuver, and comes with four guards that will help you achieve the exact facial-hair length you want. (The Peanut, according to even more experts, is also great for shaving your head and manscaping.) DeAngelis calls it a “compact, sturdy machine that is going to cut what you need it to cut, but still allow you to work safely around your mustache and lips.” If used without those guards, the trimmer will cut facial hair down to that coveted five-o’clock-shadow length, add the pros, who note that a trimmer like this is also the best style of electric razor for people with sensitive skin (because of the fact that it doesn’t cut so close results in less irritation). While Wahl also sells a cordless version of the Peanut, most of our barbers prefer the corded style because they say it offers more consistent power.
Marissa Machado, a celebrity groomer and makeup artist, and two regular guys — Strategist contributor Kurt Soller and New Scientist editor Conrad Quilty-Harper — like the OneBlade electric razor from Philips Norelco, another classic brand. The OneBlade uses cartridges that are meant to be replaced every four months and is shaped like a more maneuverable cartridge razor, but it’s battery powered and features a vibrating blade, so it also recalls electric styles. Machado says that “it gives a smooth finish” and, unlike other electric razors, it’s designed to “be used with or without shaving cream.” She also praises its customizability: “It comes with trimming attachments, so it’s really an all-in-one product.”

With different electrical termination styles, clamping mechanisms and the ability to accommodate holes and cutouts, mica-insulated band heaters are used successfully in many applications, particularly plastics.

Loss Prevention for Band Heaters
Most band heaters with heating plate do not “burn out”; instead, environmental factors create a short, cause hot spots to develop, or simply push the heater beyond its normal operating temperature. All of these factors cause a heater to fail prematurely and require replacement. Obviously, minimizing these environmental factors can reduce the frequency of replacing band heaters in your operation.

Contamination.By far, the most frequent culprit of band heater failure is contamination. Liquid plastic, hydraulic oil and moisture (often from high ambient humidity) are three main causes of premature failure from contamination. Obviously, keeping the heaters free of contaminants will reduce failure and replacement rates. In applications where liquid plastic and oil exposure are frequent and difficult to manage, the best solution may be to select a low cost band -- the heater will be replaced often, but the financial loss will be minimized. Alternatively, a band heater designed to resist contamination can be used. Keep in mind, though, that most heaters fail from lead wire damage caused by contamination -- not from contaminants finding their way inside the band -- and contaminant-resistant heaters will not prevent lead wire damage.

Poor Contact Between Heater and Barrel.The second most common cause of premature failure is poor contact between the machine barrel and the band heater. A tight fit is critical. Without it, localized hot spots can form on the band and cause the resistance wire to fail.

There are two steps you can take to ensure good contact with the machine barrel. First, make sure the machine barrel outer diameter (OD) measurement is accurate; then, order band heaters with that same measurement. The heater manufacturer will factor in a 0.25" gap, so there is no need to undersize the band’s dimensions.

Second, follow a strict installation and tightening procedure for mica, high watt density or extruded aluminum band heaters. Before installation, clean and smooth the machine barrel surface, removing any plastic residue. To install, tighten the heater snugly to the barrel using a clamping bolt torque of 10 ft/lb. Next, apply power to the heaters and allow them to reach halfway to setpoint temperature or approximately 300°F (149°C). Once at this temperature, cut the power and retighten the bands at 10 ft/lb torque. Retightening the band at an elevated temperature will account for the heater’s thermal expansion. (Remember, ceramic band heaters are radiant heaters and should not be tighten in this manner.)

Handling Procedures.Often, failing to understand a heater’s internal design leads to heater losses. For instance, stretching a one-piece mica band over a barrel during installation can damage the internal mica, resulting in a short circuit. Some manufacturers offer band heaters similar to mica bands that can be stretched for installation, but using installation techniques inappropriate for a specific heater type will cause problems. So, in cases where one heater design will not work -- for example, a machine setup that requires stretching the band over the end of the machine barrel, which would damage a mica band heater -- use a heater that is better suited to application such as a two-piece mica or a one-piece expandable band. A two-piece design also is a good choice when a large diameter band is required as the design minimizes the chance that air gaps will develop. Two-piece ceramic bands also can be used on large diameter barrels.

Another simple handling tip is to use two wrenches to install the wiring onto the band’s post terminations. This practice can eliminate failures because the wrench on the post’s lower nut acts as a strain relief. If this procedure is not followed, the post’s internal connection to the resistance wire can be damaged and become a weak link within the heater.

Runaway Temperatures.Heaters, like finned heaters, are extremely obedient entities. If a controller tells them to produce temperatures beyond their limitations, they will do so -- until their demise. Runaway temperature commands often occur when the thermocouple or RTD does not make solid contact with the surface measured. If the sensor becomes loose or disconnected from the surface, its readings may be hundreds of degrees lower than the process or barrel’s actual temperature. This faulty input then is received by the control device, which calls for full output from the heaters when in fact the process is already up to appropriate temperature.

Given the range of products plant maintenance and engineering personnel encounter, is not realistic for them to become experts on every piece of equipment used. This article only touches the surface of band heater design, options, performance expectations and loss prevention. Users should link up with a qualified supplier that can help design a new system or perform a design analysis on an existing system, then make recommendations to ensure the best performance for the given application. Systems arising from a good supplier/user partnership will extend equipment life and allow critical production schedules to be reached.

Sidebar: Understanding Watt Density Calculations
When designing a system, it is a good idea to match the total wattage applied to the actual wattage required. This practice decreases cycling frequency and temperature overshoots while increasing the heater’s life span. When possible, it also is good practice to specify strap-style clamping devices to hold the heater in place. These devices have a lower thermal expansion rate than the heater, so they can help hold the heater, or the defrost heater, tightly against the barrel during operation.

The durability and performance of a heater depends on selecting the appropriate wattage by using resistance thermometer. Exceeding the maximum allowable watt density for the specified heater size will result in premature heater failure. While calculating watt densities, remove the area of the cold section form the overall calculated surface area of the heater.

Watt Density (W/in2) = Wattage / (3.14 x Inner Diameter x Width) - (Cold Section)

Other points to consider while selecting watt density include:

• The watt density should be selected in accordance with the operating temperature.
  
  
• To avoid short cycling and inefficient operation, select a wattage as close to the needed capacity as possible.
  
  
• The wattage should be in accordance with the voltage and current rating of the controls.
  
  
• The safe heating pattern,and heating elelment of the material heated, thermal conductivity and coefficient of expansion of the cylinder are other factors that should be taken into consideration while deciding wattage.
  

The ceramic anilox roller is often referred to as the heart of the flexographic press. It is designed to deliver a precise and consistent amount of ink to the printing plate. 
An anilox roll is a hard cylinder, usually constructed of a steel or aluminum core which is coated by an industrial ceramic whose surface contains millions of very fine dimples, known as cells. The choice of the correct anilox roller is of central importance for an optimal printing result. Depending on the printing type, we recommend different engravings and cell volumes. The choice of the correct anilox roller is of central importance for an optimal printing result.
A flexographic printer often faces problems due to the nonavailability of the correct anilox roller. The purpose of this article is to make an attempt to throw some light on this very important subject.

Anilox roll:
The flexo printing/coating process depends upon the precise controlled transfer of a liquid ink, varnish or coating. An anilox roll is simply a metering roll designed to consistently supply a uniform and measurable volume of ink onto the image carrier.Anilox roll is considered to be the heart of the flexographic press. Older methods of mechanically engraving cells in to the surface of a roll have been replaced, to a large extent, by the precise computer controlled laser engravings of ceramic coated steel rolls. In this process, millions of minute holes (cells) are drilled into the ceramic surface of the roll. Ink receptivity and releasing capabilities of the anilox roll is of higher importance and ink transfer capabilities of the plate are determined by the surface technology of plate, surface tension of plate & ink and plate to ink compatibility.
The central part of the press is the anilox roller, the ink metering system unique to this process that allows the correct amount of ink to be carried to the printing plate. On the surface of the anilox roll are etched the cells which act as ink carriers.
The latest chrome anilox roller is laser engraved, with cell counts currently up to 500 cells/cm, from a steel roller and coated in fine ceramic. These laser engraved ceramic rolls could last up to 10 years, depending on the wear they are exposed to from contact with the doctor's blade. They provide an even, and consistent ink delivery in a controlled manner and provide narrow web flexo with a competitive edge in the leading packaging markets eg self-adhesive labels for wines. Once the anilox is ‘charged’ with ink, the excess is wiped off with a flexible steel doctor blade.
Besides the cell geometry, ink release capabilities of the cell are also affected by rheological properties of ink like; viscosity, surface tension, printing pressure between the plate cylinder and the impression cylinder, substrate properties, etc.

Anilox engraving angles:
Available engraving angles for anilox rolls are as follows; 90 degree angle, 45 degree angle, 30 degree angle and 60 degree angle.
In 60 degree anilox angle, the hexagonal cell offers 15 per cent more cells on the same area. Higher quantity of cells indicates a plus point concerning the ink transfer, as well as homogeneity.

Anilox sleeves:
Some of today's servo driven narrow web presses make use of anilox sleeves, which are much lighter than the standard solid anilox. The advantage is ease of handling and loading. On the narrow web side there is no difference in performance than with a conventional roll. Ceramic anilox sleeves initially were profiled in a scenario of short-run environments where anilox changes are very common and required, but have shown their usefulness regardless of the frequency of changeover. Sleeves are easier to store and inventory.
The disadvantages of sleeves are their cost as well as the different care and handling that is required. Converters need to design special racks to store sleeves so that the chance of damage is minimized. In addition, sleeves cannot be cleaned in the same fashion as rolls, which may add more time and cost.

Mirror rollers are generally used in plastics, packaging, printing, steel and other industries. Since traditional hard chrome electroplating cannot fully meet the requirements of wear resistance and corrosion resistance, our matting rollers can perfectly solve these problems. Its hardness is increased from HRV800 with hard chrome layer to HRV1200, the corrosion resistance is greatly improved, and the service life is long.

Dr blade materials, on the other hand, are a little more complicated of a subject than that of their shape. There are five materials commonly used to create blades today and they are as follows: plastic (UHMW/UHMWPE), stainless steel, carbon steel, tool steel and graphite. While the steel blades have upsides and are favored by many within the industry, current trends and advancements in technology are heating up the playing field for plastic and graphite.

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