The evolution of plasma cutting


    The evolution of plasma cutting


    Plasma cutting has come a long way since it was first developed in the late 1950s by engineers at Union Carbide Corp. Today it is one of the most widely used metal plate cutting processes for a large variety of industries.


    Early plasma cutting systems were used primarily for cutting stainless steel and aluminum plate from 0.5 to more than 6 in. thick. These systems, primitive by today’s design standards, were the most practical method for cutting heavy nonferrous plate. Most were mounted on XY cutting pantograph-style machines that used either photo-cell tracers to duplicate large black line engineering drawings of the parts to be cut, or a magnetic tracer to follow the path of a steel template.


    Engineers continuously worked on the process throughout the 1960s with the goal of improving cut quality and the life of the consumable nozzles and electrodes in the cutting torch. Plasma began gaining momentum during this period as the process improved and as users became aware of its ability to cut complex shapes in nonferrous materials at very high speeds.


    In 1968 radial water injection was introduced. This patented nozzle technology used pure water injected radially around the plasma jet to constrict the arc, increasing its energy density while improving nozzle cooling and thus allowing faster cut speeds, higher-quality cuts, and the ability to cut carbon steels at speeds four to six times faster than an oxyfuel cutting process.


    At about that same time, XY coordinate drive cutting machine technology was being improved. Microprocessor control technology started to become the brains of the XY motion control machines, allowing for better accuracy, higher cutting speeds (necessary for the new-technology plasma systems), and higher levels of automation and productivity on the shop floor.


    Through the 1970s plasma cutting technology replaced many oxyfuel-based steel cutting applications from 0.25 to 1 in. thick, while still maintaining its stronghold on the stainless and aluminum markets. While plasma could cut steel thicker than 1 in., the oxyfuel process still was a lower-cost alternative for heavier steel plate.


    Timeline of Major Engineering Breakthroughs


    With the baseline of plasma’s early history established, let’s take a look at some of the major engineering breakthroughs with this technology:


    1957 The plasma cutting process was developed and patented by Union Carbide as an extension of the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process.


    1962-1967 Several new developments were completed in consumable design, and the dual flow torch was designed to help improve consumable life and cut quality on nonferrous materials.


    1968 The water injection process was commercialized. This process allowed for cutting with clean, square-cut edges and faster speeds, as well as cutting of carbon steels with acceptable cut quality.


    1970-1979 The water table and water muffler, designed to provide fume and smoke control, debuted. Automated arc voltage-based height controls for more consistent cut quality and longer consumable parts life emerged.


    1980-1984 Oxygen-based plasma cutting systems that helped improve edge squareness and edge metallurgy (softer, weldable edge) and allowed for cutting carbon steels at lower power levels and higher cut speeds (see Figure 2) were introduced.


    1984-1990 Many developments in the air plasma cutting process allowed for better portability and lower power levels for hand cutting and mechanized thin-sheet cutting.


    1990 Better power supply designs using pulse width-modulated, current-controlled outputs were developed. Some systems started to use lighter-weight, smaller inverter technology power supplies suitable for portable, hand-held plasma systems.


    1992 Long-life oxygen process technology was introduced. This was essentially a microprocessor-controlled method of controlling plasma gas ramping pressures as well as power supply output amperage. It helped increase typical oxygen plasma consumable parts life by four to six times; improved parts consistency; and helped lower the cost of plasma cutting.


    1993 High-definition plasma, a technique that required the previous long-life oxygen technology to implement, was developed. This process allowed for a new nozzle design that increased the energy density of an oxygen plasma arc by as much as four times, allowing for squarer, cleaner cuts in all material thicknesses.


    1996 Automated gas flow control systems emerged. They interfaced digitally with the machines’ CNCs. These gas flow controls eliminated some of the potential for machine operator-related errors in setting parameters for the cutting process.


    1996-2006 Many developments occurred relating to improving cut quality and productivity and automating the many process cut parameters. These included integrated plasma, a system that closely coupled the CNC, the plasma power supply, the gas flow control, the CAM software, and the height control system to automate the process. With this expertise built into the system, the machine operator’s job became much simpler, and the process relied less on operator expertise.


    Recent Technology Developments


    In the last seven years, developments in plasma cutting technology have come at a fast pace. The latest revision on high-definition machines is their full integration with the CNC machines they are coupled with. New CNCs have touchscreen accessibility, minimizing the number of buttons involved in operating a plasma cutting machine and making operation as simple as almost any Windows?-based software. Operator training has been simplified on even the largest, most complex CNC plasma cutting machines.


    The operator’s job also has been made easier with improvements in auto-calibrating height control functionality. The operator does not need to make adjustments as the consumable parts in the torch wear out.


    Hole cutting has been improved with a large database of information in the CAM software that automatically recognizes CAD features and implements the best possible cut path and plasma cutting parameters, including on-the-fly shield gas changes that nearly eliminate the normal taper found in plasma-cut holes on steel (see Figure 3). This process is transparent to the machine operator and system programmer, eliminating the need for them to be experts.


    Improvements in cut-to-cut cycle times have been incorporated into CAM software. The software automatically recognizes areas of a full cutting nest (multiple parts) and modifies the traverse time, torch retract time, and gas preflow time to decrease production times and improve product throughput.


    Nesting software now applies the lead-in points in the most effective way to avoid traversing over areas prone to collisions with previously cut parts.


    Improved plate beveling software has simplified the integration and operation of a bevel head with XY CNC cutting machines. This advancement, again associated with the system’s CAM software, saves much of the programmer/operator trial-and-error testing that has always been necessary to hold the best tolerances on plate edge beveling applications, such as weld prep.


    Very new vented nozzle and gas mixing technology has helped improve stainless steel edge quality. Edges are squarer, shiny, and weldable.


    Air plasma cutting systems from the major manufacturers also improved dramatically in terms of cut quality, consumable life, and duty cycles. These systems, primarily designed for portable and in-shop hand-held cutting applications, now are available with quick-change mechanized torches and interface easily to a variety of lower-cost CNC machines. Systems are available from a 30-amp, toaster-sized unit that operates on 120-V household current to sever materials up to 0.5 in. thick, to a 125-amp, 100 percent duty cycle industrial unit that can sever 2.25-in. materials. Both portable systems can be used with a hand torch or can be mechanized for a variety of automated cutting applications.


    Industrial mechanized systems typically are 100 percent duty cycle, available with machine torches, and designed to use a variety of compressed gases to fine-tune the cut quality for different materials. These systems are available in various sizes and capacities from 130 to 800 amps.


    Many other advances have been made to improve reliability, performance, consumable life, cut quality, and ease of use since the first plasma system was created. The process shares the cutting market with laser cutting, abrasive waterjet, and oxyfuel cutting, all of which deliver accuracy, productivity, and long-term cost-effectiveness when used for the appropriate applications.


    What can be considered light duty?


   
       
           
               
                   
                       
                           
                               
                                   
                                       
                                       
                                            A light duty plasma cutting machine can become a need for any workshop, artist, contractor, etc. that so far have been using oxy-fuel and is ready to make the leap to a better solution.
                                       
                                       
                                            Actually, after experiencing a handheld plasma machine, almost nobody wants to return to oxy-fuel.
                                       
                                       
                                            That is because even a light-duty plasma cutting system can make a big difference in efficiency and productivity.
                                       
                                       
                                            So, in this post, we are going to consider what a light-duty plasma cutting system is and which one you should get.
                                       
                                       
                                            But before getting into this amazing topic, let’s consider what plasma cutting is.
                                       
                                       
                                            Most people classify plasma cutting systems in light, medium and heavy-duty. A handheld plasma cutting machine used in a small cutting table can be considered light-duty.
                                       
                                       
                                            In general terms, a medium-size cutting table powered by some plasma cutting machine would be a medium-duty system.
                                       
                                   
                               
                           
                       
                   
               
           
       
   


   
       
           
               
                   
                       
                           
                               
                                   
                                        A mechanized cutting system, which could occupy the heavy-duty slot, can be built in a stronger structure and composed by more than one cutting machine.
                                   
                                   
                                        But that classification is not a general rule for plasma cutting manufacturers.
                                   
                                   
                                        For the sake of this post, as quoted before, we are considering a handheld or portable plasma cutting machine as a light-duty one.
                                   
                               
                           
                       
                   
               
           
       
   


   
       
           
               
                   
                       
                           
                               
                                   
                                       
                                            Now, before buying a light-duty plasma system, you may need to know when to use a portable and when to use an automated system. So, let’s consider some of it.
                                       
                                   
                               
                           
                       
                   
               
           
       
   


    What Are The Advantages Of Fiber Laser Cutting Machine


    Fiber laser is well received in the market now, because of its outstanding advantages of good beam quality and high conversion efficiency, it is widely loved in some finishing fields. At present, the proportion of fiber laser in the industrial field is close to 50%, which is also a kind of active choice for products in many industrial applications. Compared with traditional gas and solid-state lasers, fiber lasers have great advantages as frequency conversion light sources. In this article, we are going to talk about what is fiber laser cutting machine, what are the features, advantages & benefits of fiber laser cutting machine and applications & uses of fiber laser cutting machine.


   
       
           
               
                   
                       
                           
                               
                                    What Is A Fiber Laser Cutting Machine?
                               
                           
                       
                   
               
           
       
   


   
       
           
               
                   
                       
                           
                               
                                   
                                       
                                            Fiber laser cutting machine is a new type of machine in the world, which is used to output high energy density laser beam. The laser beam is concentrated on the surface of the workpiece, so that the area of ultra-fine focus on the workpiece is instantly melted and evaporated, and the spot is moved through the CNC mechanical system. Automatic cutting by illuminating the position. Compared with large volume gas laser and solid-state laser, it has obvious advantages and has gradually become an important choice in high-precision laser processing, lidar system, space technology, laser medicine and other fields.
                                       
                                       
                                            The optical plate fiber laser cutting machine can be used for both plane cutting and oblique cutting, with neat and smooth edges. It is suitable for high precision cutting of metal plate. At the same time, the manipulator can replace the original five axis laser for 3D cutting. Compared with ordinary CO2 laser cutting machine, it saves more space and gas consumption, and has high photoelectric conversion rate. It is a new energy-saving and environmental protection product, and also one of the world’s leading technology products.

How we got duped into cooking with gas


    How we got duped into cooking with gas


    Gas stove actually unleash indoor air pollutants like soot, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide. Beyond that, greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels like natural gas drive climate change. That’s why there’s a push now to electrify homes; electric stoves can run on clean energy.


    The history of how “cooking with gas” campaigns have made a source of fossil fuel combustion in our homes seem completely innocuous gets pretty ridiculous. Leber dug up a rap video from 1988 that spends an entire four minutes hyping up gas stoves in rhyme. “Gas is so hot, it’s not on when it’s off / it’s the only way to cook, that’s what I was taught,” the rap starts off.


    Fast forward to about two minutes into the video, however, and there’s a disclaimer in the lyrics that my colleague Sean O’Kane noticed: “Safe cooking begins with range location / avoid main traffic paths and also isolation.”



    Today, gas groups pay social media influencers to advertise the supposed benefits of cooking with the fossil fuel, Leber reports. A public relations representative even posed as a resident in a neighborhood to stir up backlash against building codes that would discourage natural gas hookups in new construction, she writes.


    You have to read the truly bizarre and alarming history of gas that Leber traces in her article. With many of us spending more time working and hanging out at home during the pandemic, it’s more important than ever to be aware of what we’re exposed to inside the place that’s supposed to be our refuge.


   
        How to Deep Clean Your Gas Stove Burners Using Natural Cleaners
   


   
        No library of kitchen cleaning tips would be complete without an article on deep cleaning gas and electric burners! Dirty, greasy gas burner grates and drip pans not only age the appliance, but they also can affect your cooking and present a fire hazard. Cleaning stove burners is simple when you use these tips from the pros. Read on to see how you can get your stove sparkling clean with gas stove cleaner made from natural ingredients.
   
   
        How Often To Clean Gas Stove Burners
   
   
        Tempered glass gas stove is easy to maintain. However, when the flow of gas gets blocked, the burner heads can’t burn efficiently. Check the gas burners for irregular flame patterns and yellow flames. These are the best indicators that it’s time to grab your gas stove cleaner and get to work. Other than that, cleaning your gas stove monthly should keep it working at its best.
   
   
        Here’s what you’ll need to get your gas burners clean:
   
   
        Dishwashing detergent
   
   
        Baking soda
   
   
        Non-abrasive scrub pad
   
   
        Cleaning cloths
   
   
        Old toothbrush
   
   
        Paper clip
   
   
        Cleaning Gas Stove Burners and Caps
   
   
        If you have a cooktop with a pilot light, you’ll need to shut off the gas valve first. Gas burners have a removable ceramic cap that diffuses the flames. Beneath the caps, the burner head sits atop the gas tube. Remove the caps and the burner heads by carefully lifting them straight up. Avoid damaging the ignition electrode if you have one.
   
   
        Soak the burner heads and caps in soap and warm water for 30 minutes. Scrub buildup from the burner heads and caps using a non-abrasive scrub pad and an old toothbrush. If the port openings are clogged, use a paper clip to clear them. Be careful not to damage the metal.
   
   
        How To Clean Electric Stove Burners
   
   
        Here’s what you’ll need to get your burner stand clean:
   
   
        Dishwashing detergent
   
   
        Baking soda
   
   
        Non-abrasive scrub pad
   
   
        Microfiber towel
   
   
        Cleaning cloths
   
   
        If your coils and drip pans have caked-on grime, turn the burners on for a few minutes to burn off residue. After they cool, wash the drip pans with warm soapy water and cover them completely with a mixture of 2 parts baking soda and 1 part water. Let the drip pans sit for 15 minutes.
   
   
        While the drip pans are soaking, wipe down the stove coils with a damp cloth to remove stains and residue. Scrub the drip pans and rinse the baking soda mixture. Use fresh soapy water to wash off the residue, then rinse and dry. Buff them to a nice shiny finish with a microfiber towel. Now, on to your stovetop.
   
   
        How to Clean Your Stovetop
   
   
        For gas stovetops, use caution and avoid getting the electric starter wet. Degrease the stovetop by wiping it down with a damp cloth to loosen up the top layer of residue. Use a sponge and soapy water to cut through the grease and wipe down your stovetop with a damp cloth to remove the cleaning solution.
   
   
        For tough buildup, turn to your homemade baking soda mixture. Spread your cleaning paste over the entire stovetop and let it sit for at least 15 minutes. Scrub the stovetop and wipe off the baking soda cleaner with a clean, damp cloth.
   
   
        If you are intimidated by cleaning your gas or electric stove, or any other place in your kitchen, don’t fret. Call The Maids for a free estimate and get that good-as-new, clean home feeling you love.
   
   
       

   
   
       
           
                Gas stove tops offer quick temperature control and are more affordable to use than electric stove tops.
           
       
       
           
                The best material for a gas stove is one that can conduct and distribute heat evenly, and respond quickly to temperature changes.
           
       
       
           
                For the best cookware for gas stoves, look for ones that are made of stainless steel with aluminum or copper layers.
           
       
   
   
        The average household gas stove looks like it can handle quite a bit. Its sizable build, durable fabrication, rugged cast iron grates, all signify a hard-wearing kitchen appliance.
   
   
        Still, as with any appliance, especially one used practically every day to prepare food, it’s important to handle gas stoves with care. This means making sure the stove is well-maintained, properly cleaned, and used with the right cookware.
   
   
        While technically any pot or pan can be used on a gas stove, there are certain materials that are better suited for its open-flame style of cooking. We recommend our own stainless steel cookware for gas stoves. In this article, we’ll share what those materials are, explain why they work so well, and round up some of the best cookware for gas stoves available today.
   
   
        The Features of a Gas Stove
   
   
        Iron gas stove may be older than electric stoves, but they’re still the preferred option for a number of reasons.
   
   
        First and most important is how easy it is to adjust the heat of a gas stove. A burner can be turned on and off in an instant. And every twist of the control knob creates an immediate corresponding change in the burner’s flame level — a lightning quick heat response that’s crucial in cooking.
   
   
        Many cooks also like how the flames provide a convenient visual cue about the stove’s current heat setting. This can be a bit trickier to gauge with the dark glass tops of electric or induction cooktops.
   
   
        An added bonus of the open flame is that it lends itself well to quickly roasting a few small items, like corn tortillas, bell peppers, or marshmallows.
   
   
        Cooking with gas is also comparatively cheaper than cooking with electricity. Gas stoves generally run on propane, butane, petroleum, or natural gas, all of which are quite affordable. This gives gas stoves an advantage, not only for the cost-conscious home cook, but for anyone who finds themselves in the middle of a power outage.
   
   
        As for cookware, gas stovetops easily accommodate a wide range. They can be used with just about any type of cookware material and shape — from small skillets to tall stockpots. Woks in particular were designed to be used over an open flame.
   
   
        Flames, however, don't naturally distribute heat in a uniform manner. Some parts of a pan will have more contact with stronger flames than other parts, and the heat can be very concentrated, especially on a low setting.
   
   
        Add this to a gas stove’s ability to change temperatures in an instant, and it's easy to see why it's so important to use cookware that can ably withstand these variations.
   
   
        Choosing the Best Portable Gas Stove
   
   
       
           
                Portable gas stoves are crucial gear for the gourmet on the go. These stoves usually come with a burner and a cooking surface, and they let you boil, simmer, sauté, and fry. If you can do it on a stovetop at home, you can do it on a portable stove.
           
           
                Folding gas stove is different than a portable gas grills. Portable grills are similar to the grills you use at home. If you want to grill up hot dogs, chicken, or vegetables, you’re good to go with a portable grill. But sometimes you want more than your standard backyard barbecue menu, and that’s where a portable gas stove comes in. These have burners more like a traditional stove. They often come with containers to cook in, but many can also be used with other types of pots, pans, and skillets like a regular stovetop.
           
           
                What Kind of Portable Gas Stove Do You Need?
           
           
                The adventures you have on the trail aren’t like anyone else’s. Your needs and your priorities are unique. That’s why there are stoves for every type of outdoor explorer, from long-distance backpackers to car campers.
           
           
                As you think about your needs, there are some specific features you may want to think about:
           
           
                Size – If you’re hiking, you’ll want to save as much space and weight in your pack as possible. If you’re getting to base camp and setting up quickly, you might be more willing to haul a little more gear in the name of having the perfect home away from home.
           
           
                Fuel type – There are three main liquid fuels. Each have their own considerations and limitations. Then there’s our Jetpower fuel, which combines the benefits of both.
           
           
               
                   
                        Propane is the most common camp stove fuel. It’s high-performance, and you can find it just about everywhere. Propane is what powers the Genesis base camp system, and Jetlink technology lets you build a high-efficiency network of burners from one propane tank.
                   
               
               
                   
                        Isobutane has a lower boiling point, and it’s lighter. That means it’s easier to carry, and it’s more efficient in colder environments. However, it’s also more expensive.
                   
               
               
                   
                        Butane is the cheapest fuel for a portable gas stove, but it’s also the least efficient and reliable. It has the highest boiling point and the lowest vapor pressure of the three gases.
                   
               
               
                   
                        Jetpower is Jetboil’s engineered blend of propane and isobutane. It’s a unique mix that combines the best aspects of both, and it’s what we trust to power most of our stoves. Jetpower delivers high vapor pressure in all four seasons.
                   
               
           
           
                Cost – Cost is certainly a factor in choosing a portable gas stove, and there are options at every price point. However, it’s worth noting that sometimes paying more up front can save money in the long run. A high-efficiency stove means you’ll spend less on fuel over time, and durable equipment means you won’t have to buy a replacement for a long time.
           
           
                Durability – Most people want a stove that holds up outdoors as well as they do. Knowing that you’ve got a well-engineered stove means knowing you’ve got a reliable one.
           
           
                Number of burners – How big is the group that you’re feeding? If you’re solo, or just out with a partner, you can probably get away with one. But if you’re feeding a group, you may want a setup like the Genesis, which starts with two burners and can expand as your group dose.
           
           
                Utility – What are you cooking? Are you boiling soup? Are you making a three-course meal? The meals you plan to cook may be the biggest factor of all in choosing the stove that suits your needs.

How to Choose a Transformer: Dry Type vs. Oil Cooled


    How to Choose a Transformer: Dry Type vs. Oil Cooled


    Transformers are common and useful devices which take high voltage electricity directly from a power station and convert it to a lower voltage. This allows the energy to be safely and efficiently used by machinery and appliances that can only handle low voltage in spaces such as offices, transportation hubs, schools and factories.


    Through this process transformers generate a lot of heat that must be dissipated to keep them running safely. There are two types of transformers being used in the industry currently: Dry-type transformers and oil-cooled transformers. Dry-type uses air as a cooling medium, and liquid cooled uses oil. Although both types have the same end result there are a number of differences between them worth noting, that will affect which type you choose.


    Maintenance: Oil cooled transformers required more maintenance procedures, which must be performed more often than dry-type. The oil needs to be sampled to test for contamination, whereas dry type transformer is very resistant to chemical contaminants.


    Costs (Initial and Operating): Compared to oil cooled, dry type has a significantly higher operating loss. Oil filled transformers have a higher standard energy efficiency, and as a result have a higher lifespan than dry type.


    Noise: Oil cooled transformers have a lower operating sound level, thus less noise pollution than dry-type.


    Recyclability: The end of life recycling for dry type is limited, while oil units boast an easier core/coil reclamation. Oil cooled have superior operating life and maintainability, producing less waste and requiring less replacements and labor.


    Efficiency: Dry type transformers are larger units, limited in voltage and size, making them more prone to overheating if they experience overload. As a result, they have higher electrical losses, and it is more expensive to maintain dry type power supply over time. Oil cooled units are smaller and more efficient. They require less demand and create a smaller environmental footprint.


    Voltage Capabilities: Dry type transformers are designed to handle small to medium MVA and voltage ratings, making them ideal for smaller applications. Oil cooled transformers can handle heavier loads, so applications that require higher voltages will require oil units.


    Location: Location of the transformer will be the biggest determinant for which type you will need. Dry type is specified for use in buildings and near buildings, simply because they are environmentally safer. Dry type transformers are less flammable and pose less of a fire risk, making them ideal for shopping malls, hospitals, residential complexes and other commercial areas. Oil cooled transformers are used in outdoor installations due to the possibility of oil leakage and spills which pose a fire risk, but these units are more environmentally friendly.


    Taking these variables into account, oil units appear to be the better option overall with higher energy efficiency, recyclability, low noise pollution, lower operational costs and a small environmental foot print. However, oil units simply cannot be used in any situation. Dry type is the best and many times, required option for commercial and indoor operations, because they are safer units to operate around people and areas where fire hazards may exist.


   
        Types of transformer
   


   
        Oil Immersed Transformer
   


   
       
           
               
                   
                        As the name suggests the coils in this type of transformers are immersed in oil (mostly mineral oil) which helps in keeping the temperature of the transformer under control. This oil type transformer dissipates the through the radiators which are attached on the tank of the transformer and are referred to as ONAN type transformer. To further improve the cooling of the transformer the radiators are installed with fans which helps in bringing down the temperature and referred to as ONAF type transformer. This type of transformer can reach high voltage capacity, in some cases 1000kV.
                   
                   
                        Dry Type Transformer
                   
               
           
       
   


   
       
           
               
                   
                        In this type of transformer, air is used as the cooling medium. They are made using vacuum pressure impregnation in polyester or silicone varnish. Some of them are also made using VPI epoxy and cast resin for tougher environmental conditions. Since they are limited with regards to cooling aspect the maximum voltage is limited up to 35kV.
                   
               
           
       
   


    Switchgear


    Switchgear is electrical distribution equipment: it accepts power from a source, routes it to a number of outputs and provides overcurrent protection and control functions. Of the types of distribution equipment described in the NFPA 70: National Electrical Code Article 408: Switchboards, Switchgear and Panelboards, switchgear is generally the most robustly constructed, the largest and the most expensive. It’s typically applied in high-reliability facilities, like hospitals or data centers, where continuity of power is critical to effective operation.


    Switchgear is available in a wide range of voltage ratings, from below 1,000 volts to more than 200 kilovolts. Medium-voltage switchgear, rated above 1,000 volts, is manufactured by producers in a variety of configurations. Assemblies are available for exterior padmount installation, vault installation or installed in dedicated freestanding metal buildings, with air, gas, vacuum or oil as insulating media. This discussion will focus on interior low-voltage switchgear.


    The alternative to switchgear is switchboard construction. Switchboards generally require less space and are less expensive. Both are typically constructed of a number of vertical sections. Each section is enclosed in sheet metal, with openings in front for overcurrent protection devices, monitoring equipment and control devices. A section may contain a main overcurrent protection device, metering devices, automatic control and monitoring systems, overcurrent protection devices for distribution feeders or a combination of these or other equipment specific to the installation. Overcurrent protection is typically accomplished with circuit breakers, with fused switches are less frequently.


    Electric power substation



    An assembly of equipment in an electric power system through which electrical energy is passed for transmission, distribution, interconnection, transformation, conversion, or switching. See Electric power systems


    Specifically, substations are used for some or all of the following purposes: connection of generators, transmission or distribution lines, and loads to each other; transformation of power from one voltage level to another; interconnection of alternate sources of power; switching for alternate connections and isolation of failed or overloaded lines and equipment; controlling system voltage and power flow; reactive power compensation; suppression of overvoltage; and detection of faults, monitoring, recording of information, power measurements, and remote communications. Minor distribution or transmission equipment installation is not referred to as a substation.


    Substations are referred to by the main duty they perform. Broadly speaking, they are classified as: transmission substations, which are associated with high voltage levels; and distribution substations, associated with low voltage levels. See Electric distribution systems


    Substations are also referred to in a variety of other ways:


    1. Transformer substations are substations whose equipment includes transformers.


    2. Switching substations are substations whose equipment is mainly for various connections and interconnections, and does not include transformers.


    3. Customer substations are usually distribution substations on the premises of a larger customer, such as a shopping center, large office or commercial building, or industrial plant.


    4. Converter stations are complex substations required for high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission or interconnection of two ac systems which, for a variety of reasons, cannot be connected by an ac connection. The main function of converter stations is the conversion of power from ac to dc and vice versa. The main equipment includes converter valves usually located inside a large hall, transformers, filters, reactors, and capacitors.


    5. Most substation is installed as air-insulated substations, implying that the bus-bars and equipment terminations are generally open to the air, and utilize insulation properties of ambient air for insulation to ground. Modern substations in urban areas are esthetically designed with low profiles and often within walls, or even indoors.


    6. Metal-clad substations are also air-insulated, but for low voltage levels; they are housed in metal cabinets and may be indoors or outdoors.


    7. Acquiring a substation site in an urban area is very difficult because land is either unavailable or very expensive. Therefore, there has been a trend toward increasing use of gas-insulated substations, which occupy only 5–20% of the space occupied by the air-insulated substations. In gas-insulated substations, all live equipment and bus-bars are housed in grounded metal enclosures, which are sealed and filled with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas, which has excellent insulation properties.


    8. For emergency replacement or maintenance of substation transformers, mobile substations are used by some utilities.


    An appropriate switching arrangement for “connections” of generators, transformers, lines, and other major equipment is basic to any substation design. There are seven switching arrangements commonly used: single bus; double bus, single breaker; double bus, double breaker; main and transfer bus; ring bus; breaker-and-a-half; and breaker-and-a-third. Each breaker is usually accompanied by two disconnect switches, one on each side, for maintenance purposes. Selecting the switching arrangement involves considerations of cost, reliability, maintenance, and flexibility for expansion.


    A substation includes a variety of equipment. The principal items are transformers, circuit breakers, disconnect switches, bus-bars, shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, current and potential transformers, and control and protection equipment. See Circuit breaker, Electric protective devices, Electric switch, Relay, Transformer


    Good substation grounding is very important for effective relaying and insulation of equipment; but the safety of the personnel is the governing criterion in the design of substation grounding. It usually consists of a bare wire grid, laid in the ground; all equipment grounding points, tanks, support structures, fences, shielding wires and poles, and so forth, are securely connected to it. The grounding resistance is reduced enough that a fault from high voltage to ground does not create such high potential gradients on the ground, and from the structures to ground, to present a safety hazard. Good overhead shielding is also essential for outdoor substations, so as to virtually eliminate the possibility of lightning directly striking the equipment. Shielding is provided by overhead ground wires stretched across the substation or tall grounded poles. See Grounding, Lightning and surge protection

The Surprising History of the Tank Top


    The Surprising History of the Tank Top


    When the summer months are upon us, one of the most popular items in many wardrobes is the tank top.


    It can be dressed up with a jacket and smart jeans, or dressed down with pajamas and worn to bed.


    Tank tops keep your arms and neck cool while covering the rest of your upper body.


    When the temperature is warm, they provide just the right amount of coverage.


    When did tank tops make their way into modern society?


    Before the 1920’s, men and women were not seen showing their arms off in public.


    However, the Roaring Twenties brought about a revolution in the world of fashion and clothing.


    Women were cutting their hair shorter, wearing dresses which were more revealing than the previous trends, and enjoying human contact (such as rebellious hand-holding!) with their male partners while they danced or walked down the street.


   



    Tank Tops in the Olympic Games


    The introduction of women’s swimming into the Olympic Games came along in 1912, held in Stockholm, Sweden.


    A total of 27 women competed in the swimming events at these particular games, and their swimwear was deemed “immodest” by many news outlets and spectators.


    The costumes they wore were very similar to modern-day tank tops, but with an added piece which resembled shorts to cover the top half of the thighs.


    While we might call it a “swimming pool” these days, back in the 1920’s, it was known as a swimming “tank.”


    Thus, the items worn by female swimmers were referred to as “tank suits,” in other words, a suit which was worn in the tank!


    Tank suits were made from a variety of materials including silk, which was considered very immodest since it was often see-through after going in the water.


    Cotton was also used, and heavy woolen materials were considered the most modest since they were so thick and concealing.


    The top of a tank suit had straps which were almost identical to the straps we see on tank tops today.


    The straps would keep the suit up, but the lack of sleeves gave female swimmers the freedom of movement and flexibility that they needed in order to perform to their full potential in the pool.


    Definition


   
        A waist trimmer is a shaping garment similar to a girdle. The waist trainer pulls a person’s midsection in as tight as possible. The idea behind a waist trainer is that the pulling action gives the person a sleeker, smaller waist.
   
   
        Waist trainers usually consist of a combination of tough fabric and hard fibers. Hooks, Velcro, lacing, or other strong fasteners hold the trainer tightly in place.
   
   
        Advocates believe that it is possible to “train” the waist to retain a slimmer shape after frequent wearing of the garment over an extended period. Some people suggest that wearing a waist trainer while working out can aid weight loss.
   


   
       
            Do they work?
       
   
   
        Waist trimmer of sweat work in a similar way to corsets, which fell out of fashion due to discomfort and health concerns.
   
   
        A waist trainer can produce a temporary reduction in waist size or circumference, and a person will typically see immediate results. However, as soon as they take off the waist trainer, their waist will no longer look smaller.
   
   
        Also, waist trainers do not reduce a person’s body fat. People looking to lose body fat around their midsection or lose substantial weight overall should not rely on wearing a waist trainer to do this.
   
   
        However, a person may feel a loss of appetite while wearing a waist trainer. The garment puts pressure on the stomach, which can create an artificial feeling of fullness.
   
   
        Short sleeve button up
       
            shirts
        and polos… they get a bad rap, man. I think that’s mostly because the nerds and dorks who wear them in TV shows and movies wear them all wrong.
   
   
        The fit is off, the color is off, the length is off… everything is wrong.
   
   
        But in warm weather, short sleeve
       
            shirts
        are a life-saver! Especially if you run hot, like myself.
   
   
        In this article, we’re gonna cover every detail about how a short sleeve button up
       
            shirt
        and polo
       
            shirt
        should fit.
   
   
        Let’s get into it!
   
   
        By the way, click on any of the fit images below to enlarge in a new tab (for a more detailed view!)
   
   
        HOW SHOULD A SHORT SLEEVE
       
            SHIRT
        FIT OVERALL?
   
   
        Overall, your short sleeve button-up
       
            shirt
        should fit slim, but not too tight.
   
   
        Try the sit down test. When trying on a new
       
            shirt
        , button it up like you normally would, and then sit down in a chair.
   
   
        It should feel as comfortable (and have enough give) sitting down as it is while standing. The buttons shouldn’t be pulling apart; the
       
            shirt
        shouldn’t be stretching like spandex on your torso.
   
   
        By the way, the short sleeve
       
            shirts
        you see in these photos are from Peter Manning. PMNYC is a long-time partner of EG and I’m psyched to have their short sleevers as the perfect example of a well-fitting short sleeve
       
            shirt
        in this article.
   
   
        If you haven’t come across PMNYC yet and you’re a shorter / smaller guy, you’ve probably run into the issue of clothing proportions being off somehow… Whether it’s:
   
   
        the shirt being too long
   
   
        the sleeves being too long & wide
   
   
        or the pockets being too big and low on your
   
   
        shirts
    and pants
   
        Peter Manning’s taken care of all that with their clothing. They’re designed specifically for the guy of smaller stature (5’8″ and under), meaning everything—length, width, proportion, even pocket sizes!—are designed with the smaller man in mind.
   


    16 Different Types of Sleeves


   
        There are many different sleeve styles that can be loose and flowy, structured or puffy, long or short, and can be made from any kind of fabric.
   
   
        Set-in sleeve. A set-in sleeve is a sleeve that is attached to the garment’s armhole and sewn all the way around. Most sleeves, if they are not continuous with the bodice’s fabric are set-in sleeves.
   
   
        Bell sleeves. Also called peasant sleeves, this long sleeve is fitted around the shoulder and upper arm and flares out to the wrist, like a bell.
   
   
        Cap sleeves. A cap sleeve is an extremely short sleeve that doesn’t extend very far from the shoulder and doesn’t go below the armpit. It can have a gathered, elastic seam or a loose seam.
   
   
        Kimono sleeves. A kimono sleeve is a sleeve that is in one piece with the garment’s bodice and is not sewn on separately. The sleeve is generally wide with a uniform circumference throughout. These are generally used for Chinese-style robes, not Japanese kimonos, despite their name. For a Japanese kimono, the sleeves are usually sewn separately.
   
   
        Raglan sleeves. A raglan sleeve extends from a garment's neckline, rather than from the shoulder, and this allows better movement. This type of sleeve is used for baseball t-shirts.
   
   
        Bishop sleeves. A bishop sleeve flares out from the shoulder, giving volume to the sleeve all the way to the cuff, where the fabric is tightly gathered.
   
   
        Butterfly sleeves. Like a bell sleeve, a butterfly sleeve flares out from the shoulder, but it usually does not fully cover the arm.
   
   
        Flutter sleeves. A flutter sleeve is very similar to a butterfly sleeve except it is generally a little shorter and wider, falling loosely
   
   
        Dolman sleeves. This is a type of sleeve that has a very deep armhole, and the sleeve gets progressively narrower to the wrist. This type of sleeve is also called a batwing sleeve, due to its likeness to wings.
   
   
        Puffed sleeves. A puffed sleeve is gathered at the shoulder and at the seam but is full and “puffy” in the middle.
   
   
        Cape sleeves. Cape sleeves are full and flowing sleeves that look like capes. The fabric is gathered at the shoulder and flares out like a cape from there.
   
   
        Lantern sleeves. A lantern sleeve is a long sleeve that balloons out between the wrist and the elbow and then gathers again around the wrist.
   
   
        Balloon sleeves. Balloon sleeves are long, puffed sleeves that are gathered at the shoulder and then puffed out and gather back at the wrist. Sometimes, the sleeve puffs out lower than the shoulder, but it is still a full puff rather than a tapered flare.
   
   
        Slit sleeves. A slit sleeve is a sleeve that has a slit down the center usually exposing part of the arm. This sleeve can also be called a cold shoulder sleeve.
   
   
        Leg-of-mutton sleeves. This sleeve is gathered and puffed by the shoulder and upper arm and then fitted on the forearm. This style of sleeve somewhat resembles a sheep’s leg, hence the name.
   
   
        T-shirt sleeve. A t-shirt sleeve is a short, set-in sleeve that starts at the shoulder and ends at the middle of the upper arm.

Food Additives: What Parents Should Know


    Food Additives: What Parents Should Know


    Food additives have been used for thousands of years, ever since people realized salt could keep meat from spoiling. Today, there are more than 10,000 additives approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to preserve, package, or modify the taste, look, texture, or nutrients in foods. But increasing evidence suggests some chemicals used as food additives should be avoided―especially for children.



    How do food additives affect kids?



    The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) policy, "Food Additives and Child Health," explains that a rising number of studies suggest some food additives may interfere with hormones, growth, and development Some may also raise a child's risk of obesity. Children may be particularly susceptible to the effects of these additives, given that they have more exposure than adults due to their size and dietary intake.



    Below is a list of the most commonly used food additives and the current health concerns. This list includes indirect additives, which are used in processing or packaging, as well as direct additives that are put directly into foods.


    How to reduce your family's exposure to food additives


    Buy fresh or frozen. It's best to buy and serve fresh or frozen fruits and vegetables when possible.


    Eat fewer processed meats. Try to avoid processed meats, such as hot dogs, ham and meats in pre-packaged meals, especially during pregnancy.


    Wash plastic food containers and utensils by hand, rather than in the dishwasher. Heat can cause plastics to leak BPA and phthalates into food. Avoid microwaving food or beverages―including infant formula and breastmilk―in plastic, if possible.



    Use glass and stainless steel. Especially when cooking or serving hot foods, use alternatives to plastic, such as glass or stainless steel, when possible.


    Learn plastic recycling codes. Look at the recycling code on the bottom of products to find the plastic type. Try to avoid plastics with recycling codes 3 (phthalates), 6 (styrene), and 7 (bisphenols) unless plastics are labeled as "biobased" or "greenware," which means they are made from corn and do not contain bisphenols.


    Wash your hands. Because chemicals from plastics are so common in items we touch throughout the day, be sure to wash your hands thoroughly before and after handling food.



    Speak out. Join the AAP and other organizations calling for more research into food additives' safety, including improvements to the U.S. food additive regulatory program and retesting some previously approved additives. A recent review of nearly 4,000 food additives showed that 64% of them had had no research showing they were safe for people to eat or drink. While some change to the current law could be achieved by the FDA, some may require congressional action.


    Common questions from parents about food additives



    How do I find out which additives are in foods?


    Additives that are put directly in foods are listed on ingredient labels, but often with their chemical names. For example, salt may be listed as sodium chloride, sugar as sucrose, vitamin C as ascorbic acid, and vitamin E as alpha-tocopherol. Artificial colors are usually listed by their numbers, such as Blue #2 or Yellow #5. However, there are also indirect additives from processing or packaging materials that are not listed on the ingredient labels. These can include chemicals from plastic, glues, dyes, paper, cardboard, and different types of coatings.


    Are additives a problem in any baby products?


    The FDA recently banned BPA from baby bottles and sippy cups, but the chemical is still used in some food and beverage containers. Many companies have voluntarily removed BPA from their products, but in many cases replaced it with chemicals such as bisphenol S (BPS) that may have similar health effects. In 2017, the Consumer Product Safety Commission banned the use of some phthalates in child-care products such as teething rings.


    Do artificial food colors cause childhood hyperactivity?


    More research is needed to better understand how artificial food colors (AFCs) may or may not impact a child's behavior. This is because much of the original research on these additives were animal studies that did not include behavioral affects. For some children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other problem behaviors, the AAP says that until we know more, it may be helpful to eliminate AFCs from their diet if they seem to worsen symptoms.


    The future of food additives


    Many new techniques are being researched that will improve how additives are produced. One approach is the use of biotechnology, which can use simple organisms to produce food additives. These additives are the same as food components found in nature.


    Talk with your pediatrician



    Although there are ways to limit the amount of potentially harmful food additives in your family's diet, stronger federal food safety requirements will help keep all children healthy.



    If you're concerned about food additives, talk with your pediatrician. Your regional Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Unit (PEHSU) have staff who can also talk with parents about concerns over environmental toxins.


    There are many different methods used to produce natural plant extract powder. Durning an extraction process a solvent is used to draw out the plant extracts, common solvents utilised are water or alcohol. Once the desired compounds are extracted the solvent is then removed. The plant extraction method used depends on whether specific compounds of the plant are desired to be extracted or the full range of plant compounds. Here we take a close look at the different methods of extraction.


    1. LIPOPHILIC EXTACTION // Lipophilic are oil loving (fat soluble) and therefore soluble in oil. Macerated or Infused oil are Lipophilic extracts. This includes fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), carotenoids, bisabolol and other lipophilic active ingredients. Note: Vitamin C is an extremely sensitive hydrophilic vitamin and therefore it is NOT present in plant oils, however some plant oils exhibit Vitamin C behaviours, research, I am sure one day may explain these 'effects'.


    HOW IT WORKS // Plant material is added to a carrier oil. Maceration is performed as cold or warm-cold. Usually the procedure takes a few days to several weeks and the plant material is renewed several times during the maceration period. Heat or sun are applied as sources of energy.
Ingredient Example // St Johns Wort Infused Oil


    2. SUPERCRITICAL EXTRACTION (CO2) //Supercritical extraction uses CO2 (Carbon dioxide - an oxygen-free process) instead of organic solvents.


    HOW IT WORKS // At a temperature and pressure above its critical point, a molecule will become a supercritical fluid, which is not quite a gas, but not quite a liquid. Supercritical fluids can be used under high pressure to extract a full range of phytochemical types. CO2 has a high diffusion rate that can penetrate the material quickier than liquids. It is a pure substance found in nature and is, thus, easily removed from the final extract without leaving any residue.


    Among its advantages, supercritical CO2 extraction has the flexibility to extract specific compounds, and it operates at temperatures lower than expeller press and organic solvent methods. It also involves no oxygen, thus better preserving the extracted compounds.


    CO2 extraction delivers the superior active properties of the plant without the use of any chemical solvents or the production of residues & impurities or issues with rancidity. Supercritical CO2 extraction is not ideal for all ingredients, this method is only applicable to materials that are lipid soluble.


   



    A natural instant fruit juice powder is a powder made from the juice of fresh fruit and then dried into a fine powder. Fruit juice powders are basically concentrated fruit juice dehydrated by spray-drying method. Its moisture content is 1%-3%. The spray drying process is considered a conventional method to convert fruit juices to powder form. It can be used in drinks, dressings, marinades, desserts, smoothies etc. One must not get confused between fruit powder and fruit juice powder as the two are totally different. Powders are made from drying the whole fruits while fruit juice powders are made from drying the pure juice.


    What is an API?


    An API is defined as a specification of possible interactions with a software component. What does that mean, exactly? Well, imagine that a car was a software component. Its API would include information about what it can do—accelerate, brake, turn on the radio, etc. It would also include information about how you could make it do those things. For instance, to accelerate, you put your foot on the gas pedal and push.


    The API doesn’t have to explain what happens inside the engine when you put your foot on the accelerator. That’s why, if you learned to drive a car with an internal combustion engine, you can get behind the wheel of an electric car without having to learn a whole new set of skills. The what and how information come together in the API definition, which is abstract and separate from the car itself.


    One thing to keep in mind is that the name of some APIs is often used to refer to both the specification of the interactions and to the actual software component you interact with. The phrase “Twitter API,” for example, not only refers to the set of rules for programmatically interacting with Twitter, but is generally understood to mean the thing you interact with, as in “We’re doing analysis on the tweets we got from the Twitter API.”

What Is Microfiber Leather

    What Is Microfiber Leather


    Microfiber leather is an abbreviation of ultrafine fiber PU synthetic leather. It is a non-woven fabric made of three-dimensional structure network by carding acupuncture with microfiber staple fiber. After wet processing, PU resin impregnation, alkali reduction, and dermabrasion and polishing And other processes eventually make microfiber leather. It is made by adding ultra-fine fiber to PU polyurethane, which makes the toughness, air permeability and abrasion resistance further strengthened; it has extremely excellent abrasion resistance, excellent cold resistance, breathability, and aging resistance. Eco-friendly, Comprehensive performance beyond real leather. Widely used for automotive, garment, bags, sofa, shoes, boots, basketball, belt, jewellery box and so on. We are specialize in microfiber leather production manufacture.We provide the optimal leather options, the best leather substitute and best leather alternatives for automotive seat covers and interiors, furniture & sofa upholstery, footwear and shoes, bags, garments, gloves, balls, etc.


   



    While synthetic leather were once considered not suitable for high quality shoes,  PU microfiber leather has changed how shoes are made.


   



    Microfiber leather is designed to hold up against weather conditions and the wear and tear of walking and running over an extended period of time.


   



    They can retain their form very well, and thus are usually very durable if cared for properly. They're also more water-resistant and lighter than real leather, making them great for long wear and outdoor activities.


   



    We found this video, below, that tests how durable shoes made with suede microfiber leather are. Check it out!


   



    Microfiber leather, or micro fiber leather, is the highest quality grade synthetic leather (faux leather or PU leather), a high-tech simulation of high-end leather material. WINIW Microfiber Leather is simulated the structure of natural leather, using sea-island superfine micro fiber (ultra-fine fiber bundle), and high-grade polyurethane resins as raw materials, using needle punched nonwoven technology of 3D structure, has a lot of similar characters as natural leather, however better physical & chemical performance, has been widely popular around the world. Because of superior performance, WINIW microfiber synthetic leather has been the best leather alternatives and the optimal leather substitute, material, best vegan leather and eco leather, can replace natural leather perfectly!


   



    Compared to natural leather, microfiber synthetic leather has many excellent qualities, such as chemical resistance and physical and mechanical properties. However, preparation of microfiber synthetic leather with a high water vapor transmission rate (WVT), moisture absorption and wearing comfort property is still a challenge. In this study, we prepared thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)/sulfonated polysulfone (SPSf) electrospun nanofibers and applied them to a microfiber synthetic leather base (MSLB). The effects of TPU/SPSf nanofiber content on the structure and properties of the MSLB were investigated. The results indicated that the TPU/SPSf nanofibers with an average diameter of 0.12?μm were well distributed at all directions in the MSLB. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis showed four Tg peaks, further demonstrating the existence of TPU/SPSf nanofibers. With the increase of TPU/SPSf nanofiber content from 0 to 30?wt%, the contact angles decreased gradually from 111.64° to 67.07°, leading to 55.19% improvement in the WVT value (from 2868.96 to 4452.24?g/(m2?24?h)) and 26.25% improvement in the moisture absorption (from 628.70% to 793.75% mm/s). Simultaneously, when the nanofiber content was 30?wt%, the nanofibers tended to bundle and 6.79% decrement of air permeability was observed. Specifically, the softness of the MSLB was improved by 88.55%. Moreover, the thermal stability and the tear strength were also obviously enhanced. Consequently, this research provided a feasible and promising way to prepare a high-performance MSLB using TPU/SPSf nanofibers.


   



    The difficulty in dyeing microfiber base filled with ordinary polyurethane presents a significant challenge in maintaining the uniformity and highly realistic appearance of the resulting products. In the present study, a type of acid-dyeable polyurethane (PU-MDEA; MDEA=N-methyldiethanolamine) was synthesized, and its chemical structure and dyeing properties were investigated. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis indicated that cationic groups were successfully incorporated into the PU-MDEA backbone via chain extension using MDEA. The amorphous nature of PU-MDEA was determined by differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, and polarizing optical microscopy. Owing to the strong binding between these cationic groups and acid dye, as well as the reduced resistance to dye penetration, PU-MDEA showed better dyeability toward the acid dyes studied herein when compared with the control sample (microfiber synthetic leather filled with ordinary polyurethane). The adsorption isotherm experiment revealed that the dyeing process conformed to the Langmuir model, thereby indicating that the acid dyes attached to PU-MDEA via strong ionic bonding rather than van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonding. Additionally, it was found that the wastewater resulting from the dyeing of the microfiber synthetic leather filled with PU-MDEA exhibited environmentally friendly characteristics when compared with that displayed by the control sample (microfiber synthetic leather filled with ordinary polyurethane). Thus, the current results show the potential of PU-MDEA, as a filler, in the manufacture of microfiber synthetic leather to achieve fast dyeing rate, high dye uptake, and good color fastness, thereby improving the uniformity and highly realistic appearance of the resulting products.


    Bonded leather is called ‘leather’ because it incorporates scraps of leather remnants, which comprise between 10-20% of its content. The scraps of leather are made into a pulp and stuck to a fibre or paper backer which is then coated with polyurethane and embossed to give it the appearance of genuine leather.


   



    The price of an article is an immediate indication as to whether you are buying genuine leather. At a glance, bonded leather may look like the real thing but it will feel thin to the touch and will lack the softness of real leather, it may also exude a chemical smell.


   



    WHAT IS BONDED LEATHER MATCH?


    This term refers to the ability of bonded leather manufacturers to replicate the appearance of real leather, although it is likely that the product may be dyed in a striking range of unnatural colours.


   



    For most people this will be a choice dictated by the comparative low cost of the product; some may choose bonded leather because it can be regarded as environmentally friendly, in so much as it uses left overs and does not involve additional farming and, potentially, reduces landfill. The product is also easy to clean and is likely to come in a wide range of design options.


   



    Bonded leather should be wiped with a clean damp cloth and wiped dry with a different cloth. Spilt liquids should be cleaned immediately but no detergents or abrasive cleaners should be used. Non-alkaline cleaners and non-detergent soaps can be used but the material should always be tested for colour fastness on a small unobtrusive area first.


   



    HOW DURABLE IS BONDED LEATHER?


    Bonded leather is not a durable product. Generally, furniture made from bonded leather is likely to peel and crack within two to five years.


   



    WHAT CAUSES BONDED LEATHER TO PEEL AND CRACK? 


    Bonded leather is a non-elastic material; therefore, it has a tendency to crack with use, strips of polyurethane and leather will then start to peel away from the backing.


   



    WHY IS BONDED LEATHER BAD?


    Compared with leather, bonded leather has a very short lifespan. It is prone to cracking and peeling and once it has deteriorated beyond a certain point it is impossible to repair. Although a bonded leather may be cheaper than real leather, it’s short life span means that in the long run the cost of replacing a bonded leather item can be more expensive. There is also the argument that this also makes it less environmentally friendly.


   



    HOW TO REPAIR BONDED LEATHER  


    There are repair kits on the market which enable you to make small repairs to bonded leather. The affected area must be sanded to remove any protruding bits of leather, a patch can then be dyed to match or the fabric under the peel can be dyed and sealed to stop further peeling. The resulting repair will be noticeable but will be an improvement.


   



    HOW TO FIX BONDED LEATHER SCRATCHES  


    First clean the area with a white cloth to ensure that no dye is transferred. Then mix a leather repair solution together with an appropriate tint. Add a small quantity of the mixture to the affected area and around the affected area. Then place leather grained paper, supplied with the kit, over the area and gently iron with a warm iron, this will transfer the pattern to the repair. Be careful to ensure that the iron is not too hot because it may discolour or damage the bonded leather. For minor scratches, it may be possible to affect a repair with the use of shoe polish. You should also check any new products on a small inconspicuous area of the leather item first.


   



    Top Grain leather is the second highest grade quality of leather and is the lower part of the top layer of the hide. One removed it is sanded and refinished. It comes in two grades, aniline, which is natural soft leather which is vulnerable to stains and semi-aniline which has a protective coating. Top Grain leather is comprised of twelve to fourteen percent water and consequently it adjusts to body temperature: it is cool in summer and warm in winter. With bonded leather the reverse is the case.


   



    BONDED LEATHER VERSUS REAL LEATHER 


    Real Leather, also referred to as Genuine Leather is the third grade of leather, taken from the lower, thinner layer of the hide. The surface is then reworked to resemble a higher-grade leather. It is not as tough as Full grain leather or Top Grain leather but is considerably more durable than bonded leather.


   



    BONDED LEATHER VERSUS FAUX LEATHER 


    Faux leather, sometimes referred to as Pleather, contains no animal products and is made from polyurethane. It can be embossed with any texture and looks and feels like genuine leather. It is water resistant and easy to clean. Unlike bonded leather it does not crack or fade in sunlight, it is however, easy to tear or puncture. It is also considered less environmentally friendly due to the chemicals and toxins used in its production – although this varies depending on the exact process and materials used to produce it.


   



    BONDED LEATHER VERSUS DURABLEND


    Durablend is a low-cost leather alternative, similar to bonded leather and comprising of 57% polyurethane, 26% poly/cotton and 17% leather shavings. It is the trademark product of Ashley Furniture. Customer reviews suggest that it shares similar weaknesses with bonded leather in so much as it scratches easily and is prone to cracking.


   



    BONDED LEATHER VERSUS VINYL 


    Polyvinyl chloride, popularly known as Vinyl or PVC is a faux leather which has been produced since the 1940’s by chemical companies like DuPont. It is used for shoes, car interiors and upholstery. Not as breathable as bonded leather, skin tends to stick to its surface, which makes it unpleasant seating in hot weather, it is easy to clean and maintain. Like bonded leather it cracks with use and is easy to puncture.


   



    BONDED LEATHER VERSUS MICROFIBER 


    A much more sophisticated form of faux leather: polyurethane resin and ultra- fine microfiber leather for automotive are combined to replicate the microscopic structure of leather. The complexity of its construction mean that it is more expensive than other faux products but it does have a number of advantages over bonded leather. It doesn’t scratch or tear and is non-fading. It breathes like real leather but it also has ant -bacteria and anti-mildew properties. Unlike bonded leather it is completely odourless.


   



    BONDED LEATHER VERSUS REXINE 


    Rexine is the registered trademark of a British artificial leather which has been produced since the 1920’s. Essentially a cloth backing is coated with cellulose nitrate and embossed to produce the illusion of leather. Primarily used for car interiors this is now regarded as retro faux leather and as such is sort out by collectors.


   



    BONDED LEATHER VERSUS BICAST


    Bicast is constructed using a split leather backing to which a layer of polyurethane is applied. The surface is then embossed to give the appearance of leather. It shares many of the qualities of bonded leather: it has a consistent texture and is easy to clean and maintain but it doesn’t breathe like leather and it lacks strength and durability.


   



    BONDED LEATHER VERSUS LEATHERETTE 


    Leatherette is a plastic based synthetic leather. Unlike bonded leather it does not scratch and it does not fade in sunlight. Like most faux leather, it does not breathe and is unpleasant next to the skin. Although it might be the preferred choice of those who don’t like to use animal products, it is made from non- biodegradable, non-renewable materials and is therefore considered less environmentally friendly.

Cast Iron Pipe

    Cast Iron Pipe


    Cast iron pipes can fail in many modes which in general can be summarized into two categories: loss of strength due to the reduction of wall thickness of the pipes, and loss of toughness due to the stress concentration at the tips of cracks or defects. Even in one category there can be many mechanisms that cause failure. The strength failure can be caused by hoop stress or axial stress in the pipes. A review of recent research literature (Sadiq et al., 2004; Moglia et al., 2008; Yamini, 2009; Clair and Sinha, 2012) suggests that current research on pipe failures focuses more on loss of strength than loss of toughness. As was mentioned in Section 3.3.7(b), the literature review also revealed that in most reliability analyses for buried pipes, multifailure modes are rarely considered although in practice this is the reality. Therefore the aim of this section is to consider multifailure modes in reliability analysis and service life prediction for ductile iron pipe. Both loss of strength and toughness of the pipe are considered. A system reliability method is employed in calculating the probability of pipe failure over time, based on which the service life of the pipe can be estimated. Sensitivity analysis is also carried out to identify those factors that affect the pipe behavior most.


   



    Buried pipes are not only subjected to mechanical actions (loads) but also environmental actions that cause the corrosion of pipes. Corrosion related defects would subsequently cause fracture of cast iron pipes. In the presence of corrosion pit, failure of a pipe can be attributed to two mechanisms: (i) the stresses in the pipe exceed the corresponding strength; or (ii) the stress intensity exceeds fracture toughness of the pipe. Based on these two failure modes, two limit state functions can be established as follows.


   



    Steel pipe is manufactured by the pit, horizontal or centrifugal method. In the vertical pit method, a mold is made by ramming sand around a pattern and drying the mold in an oven. A core is inserted in the mold and molten iron is poured between the core and the mold. In the horizontal method, a machine is used to ram sand around horizontal molds that have core bars running through them. The molten iron is poured into the molds from multiple-lipped ladle designed to draw the iron from the bottom to eliminate the introduction of impurities. In the centrifugal method (Figure 3.4), sand-lined molds are used that are placed horizontally in centrifugal casting machines. While the mold revolves, an exact quantity of molten iron is introduced, which, by action of the speed of rotation, distributes itself on the walls of the mold to produce pipe within a few seconds.


   



    Many cast iron pipes made towards the end of the nineteenth century are still in use; their walls were relatively thick and not always of uniform, ‘Spun’ grey iron pipes were formed by spinning in a mould and produced a denser iron with pipes of more uniform wall thickness; they comprise a large proportion of the distribution mains in many countries. Three classes of such pipes were available: B, C, and D for working pressures of 60, 90, and 120 m respectively; classes B and C were more widespread. Carbon is present in the iron matrix substantially in lamellar or flaky form; therefore, the pipes are brittle and relatively weak in tension and liable to fracture. The manufacture of grey iron pipes has been discontinued in most countries, except for the production of non-pressure drainage pipes.


   



    Since cast iron pipes are deteriorating rapidly and causing so many maintenance problems (Section 4.3.2), the distribution network is currently undergoing an extensive replacement scheme with old, leaking and corroded cast iron pipes being replaced by MDPE and uPVC. These new plastic pipe materials are thought to support fewer bacteria than the old hubless cast iron pipe. Their surface is smoother and therefore the surface area smaller and they are not subject to corrosion or biodeterioration.


   



    In addition, the effectiveness of a disinfectant is greatly influenced by the pipe material. Biofilms grown on copper or PVC pipe surfaces were inactivated by a 1 mg/l dose of free chlorine or monochloramine. However, on iron pipes 3-4 mg/l of chlorine or monochloramine was ineffective in controlling the biofilm (LeChevallier et al., 1990) because, as discussed before, the chlorine will preferentially react with the iron surface (LeChevallier et al., 1993). It appears that the option of changing pipe materials to ones with lower biofilm-forming potentials would reduce the biofilm problem.


   



    Many cast iron pipes made towards the end of the 19th century are still in use; their walls were relatively thick and not always of uniform, ‘Spun’ grey iron pipes were formed by spinning in a mould and produced a denser iron with pipes of more uniform wall thickness; they comprise a large proportion of the distribution mains in many countries. Three classes of such pipes were available in the UK: B, C and D for working pressures of 60, 90 and 120 m, respectively; classes B and C were more widespread. Carbon is present in the iron matrix substantially in lamellar or flaky form; therefore, the pipes are brittle and relatively weak in tension and liable to fracture. The manufacture of grey iron pipes has been discontinued in most countries, except for the production of non-pressure drainage pipes.


   



    Lead joint (a) is accomplished by melting and pouring lead around the spigot in the bell end of the pipe. After the lead has cooled to the temperature of the pipe, the joint is caulked using pneumatic or hand tools until thoroughly compacted with the caulking material and made water tight.


   



    Cement joint (b) is started at the bottom with the cement mixture, and the mixture then caulked. Pipe with cement joints must not be filled with water until after 12 h has elapsed.


   



    Roll-on joint © requires a round rubber gasket that is slipped over the spigot before it is pushed in the bell. Braided jute is tamped behind the gasket, after which the remaining space is filled with a bituminous compound.


   



    Push-on gasket joint (d) is made by seating a circular rubber gasket inside the contour of the socket bell. The slightly tapered pipe end permits the gasket to fit over the internal bead in the socket. A special lever action tool, manually operated, then allows the bell and spigot past the gasket, which is thereby compressed as it makes contact with the bottom of the socket.


   



    Mechanical joint and pipe joint should be thoroughly cleaned to remove oil, grit, and excess coating and then painted with a soap solution. Cast iron gland is then slipped on the spigot end with the lip extension toward the socket (or bell) end. The rubber gasket, also painted with the soap solution, is placed on the spigot end but with its thick end toward the gland. The entire section of the pipe is pushed forward to seat the spigot into the bell; the cast iron gland is moved into position for bolting.


   



    The Putney gas explosion was a real wake-up call, and accelerated the replacement of old gray ductile iron pipe fittings by polymers such as medium-density polyethylene (MDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and unplasticized polyvinylchloride (UPVC). HDPE has a tensile strength of ≈20–37 MN m?2 (which is more than adequate for typical internal pressures). Most importantly, though, it has a Young’s modulus which is ≈150–300 times less than cast iron. This means that HDPE pipes can deflect under misalignments of the kind experienced in the Putney explosion without reaching the fracture stress. Even better, over a long time the polymer also creeps, which further dissipates the stresses caused by misalignment. Polymers are also very resistant to corrosion, so should last indefinitely in the ground.


   



    But how are lengths of polymer pipe joined together? The following clip shows how:


   



    http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=83PTUoFBq...re=related


   



    The steps in the process are shown in Figure 27.11. First, the ends of the pipe to be joined are machined flat and parallel using a double-sided rotating disk planer. Then the ends are heated with an electric hotplate. Finally, the hot faces are pushed together using a hydraulic ram. The softened thermoplastics fuse together, making a high-strength leak-proof joint. This is a quick, reproducible method, which requires little skill on the part of the operator—in marked contrast to the lead-filled spigot-and-socket joints of the old cast iron system. Figures 27.12 and 27.13 show an alternative joining method, where one end of the pipe has an enlarged bore into which the mating pipe can be inserted. This overlapping joint can then be fixed and sealed with polymer adhesive. It would be hard to envisage any replacement materials so well adapted to this challenging environment than thermoplastics.


   



    The earliest oil pipelines in the United States, laid in the 1860s, were typically constructed of 2-in cast-iron pipe threaded and screwed together in short segments. Oil was propelled through the pipeline using steam-driven, single cylinder pumps, or by gravity feed. These early pipelines, seldom more than 15 mi in length, were prone to bursting, thread stripping at the pipe joints, and frequent pump breakdowns mainly due to the percussive strain on the lines caused by each stroke of the pump which “resembled the report of a rifled gun.” Development of the four-cylinder Worthington pump revolutionized the transportation of petroleum by pipeline with its constant flow and uniform pressure (The Engineering and Building Record, 1890; Scientific American, 1892; Herrick, 1949; Williamson and Daum, 1959).


   



    By the 1870s, a 2000-mi network of small-diameter gathering lines connected the oil-producing areas with regional refineries and storage points on the railroads and rivers where the oil could be shipped to refineries via railcars or ships and barges. Typical crude oil trunk lines were constructed of 18-ft sections of lap-welded wrought steel pipe fittings 5 or 6 in in diameter joined with tapered, threaded joints manufactured specifically for pipeline service. The pipe was generally buried 2 or 3 ft below the ground surface. Worthington-type pumps were used as the motive power for the lines, and the pumps were powered by steam generated by coal-fired boilers. Pump stations were spaced as needed to maintain the flow of oil over the terrain crossed by the lines. At the pump stations, oil was withdrawn from the lines and passed through riveted steel receiving tanks some of which were 90 ft in diameter and 30 ft high holding about 35,000 barrels (The Engineering and Building Record, 1890; Scientific American, 1892; Herrick, 1949). Diesel-powered pumps began to replace steam power around 1913–1914 (Williamson et al., 1963).


   



    It was not until May 1879 that the Tidewater Pipe Company, Ltd. began operation of the first long-distance crude oil pipeline covering the 100 mi between Coryville and Williamsport, Pennsylvania, to connect with the Reading Railroad. The line was constructed of 6-in wrought-iron pipe laid on the surface of the ground (except when crossing cultivated land) and relied on only two pumping stations, one at Coryville and the other near Coudersport. The expansion of the oil under the hot summer sun caused the line to shift as much as 15–20 ft from its intended position, knocking over telegraph poles and small trees, but no serious breaks occurred. In the spring of 1880, Tidewater buried the entire line (Williamson and Daum, 1959).


   



    The success of the Tidewater pipeline set the pattern for the construction of other long-distance crude oil “trunk” lines which sprang up in the early 1880s connecting the oil regions of Pennsylvania with refining centers in Cleveland, Pittsburg, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Bayonne, and New York City (Williamson and Daum, 1959).


   



    By 1905, the oil fields in the Oil Regions of Appalachia stretching from Wellsville, New York, through western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, eastern Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee were becoming depleted. The new oil fields discovered during the early 1900s in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, southeastern Kansas, northeastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas were quickly connected by trunk lines to the eastern refining centers as well as the new western refineries in Lima, Ohio; Whiting, Indiana; Sugar Creek, Missouri; and Neodesha, Kansas (Johnson, 1967).


   



    The proximity of the prolific Spindle Top Field to the Gulf coast made the area around Houston, Port Arthur and Beaumont, Texas, and Baton Rouge, Louisiana into a petroleum refining center. Regional pipelines were built to carry crude oil the relatively short distances to the Gulf coast refineries (Johnson, 1967). The oil tanker ships operating from the Gulf coast ports competed for and obtained control of most of the long-distance oil transport to the refineries and markets along the eastern seaboard by the mid-1920s (Williamson et al., 1963; Johnson, 1967).


   



    Until the 1930s, when large-diameter steel pipe was in widespread use, the carrying capacity of oil pipelines was increased by laying an additional line or lines alongside the original pipe within the same right-of-way. This practice was known as “looping.” The carrying capacity of 8-in lines was about 20,000 barrels per day, while 12-in lines handled 60,000 barrels per day. Since the largest refineries operating in that era were designed to handle crude at the rate of approximately 80,000–100,000 barrels per day, the carrying capacity of the pipelines built by a refiner were carefully gauged to support the refinery with little excess capacity to offer to others (Wolbert, 1979; Willson, 1925).


   



    By 1941, just prior to the United States’ entry into World War II, there were about 127,000 mi of oil pipeline in the United States composed of about 63,000 mi of crude oil trunk lines, about 9000 mi of refined product lines, and about 55,000 mi of crude gathering lines (Frey and Ide, 1946). From February through May 1942, 50 oil tankers serving the Atlantic seaboard were sunk by German submarines. The continuing attrition of the tanker fleet by enemy action and the diversion of tankers to serve military operations abroad caused a tremendous increase in the use of pipelines to transport both crude oil and refined products to the east coast which consumed about 40% of the petroleum produced in the United States. In June 1941, before the Pearl Harbor attack, pipelines delivered about 2% of the petroleum needed by the east coast; by April 1945, pipelines carried 40% of this critical supply (Frey and Ide, 1946).


   



    The wartime expansion of the pipeline network added more than 11,000 mi of trunk and gathering lines, repurposed over 3000 mi of existing pipelines in new locations and reversed the direction of flow of more than 3000 mi of other lines (Frey and Ide, 1946). One of the pipelines converted from products delivery and reversed in flow direction to convey crude oil to east coast refineries during the war was the Tuscarora pipeline. After the war, it was reconverted and its direction of flow was again reversed to convey gasoline from the coastal refineries to the interior (Johnson, 1967).


   



    Noteworthy wartime pipelines owned by the federal government were the “Big Inch” crude oil line, the largest pipeline in the world at that time measuring 24 in in diameter for much of its 1254 mi length; and the “Little Big Inch,” the longest refined products pipeline in the world at 1475 mi of 20-in diameter pipeline (Frey and Ide, 1946). Only during World War II did the federal government finance oil pipeline construction (Johnson, 1967).


   



    With the proven success of long, large-diameter crude and refined products pipelines during World War II, the rapid growth in demand for petroleum products in the post-World War II era prompted a great expansion in construction of large pipelines. The number of refined products pipelines increased about 78% from 9000 mi in 1944 to 16,000 mi in 1950. Crude oil trunk lines expanded from about 63,000 mi in 1941 to about 65,000 mi 1950. The postwar increase in the diameter of the crude oil trunk lines, and therefore their carrying capacity, far outweighed the relatively modest increase in mileage (Johnson, 1967) (Table 24.1).

Rethinking the bottle

    Rethinking the bottle


    When I was younger, wine came in a glass bottle, and—outside of a few value-priced boxed options—that was that. But now, quality wine comes in all sorts of packaging: boxes, cans, pouches, even slim wine bottles that can fit through a mail slot. Of course, the bottle is still king—but even that classic container isn’t beyond innovation. The British company Frugalpac has just launched a standard-sized wine bottle made mostly out of recycled paper.


   



    The Frugal Bottle is a 750 milliliter bottle “made from 94 percent recycled paperboard with a food-grade liner to hold the wine or spirit,” according to Frugalpac. Not only is it “comparable in cost to a labelled glass bottle,” but it can also “be refrigerated and keeps the liquid cooler for longer.”


   



    Naturally, the company offers an environmental pitch, as well. “Our mission is to design, develop and supply sustainable packaging. The Frugal Bottle is up to five times lighter than a glass bottle, has a carbon footprint up to six times lower and is easy to recycle again,” explained Frugalpac chief executive Malcolm Waugh. “We’ve had fantastic feedback from people who’ve trialed the Frugal Bottle. As well as the superior environmental benefits, it looks and feels like no other bottle you have ever seen.”


   



    Digging into the specifics, a Frugal Bottle weighs about 3 ounces, whereas burgundy bottles can weigh about a pound. Additionally, Frugalpac says that beyond offering a carbon footprint that is 84 percent lower than a glass bottle, it’s also “more than a third less than a bottle made from 100 paper recycled plastic,” with a “water footprint is also at least four times lower than glass.” And, yes, the paper bottle is easy to recycle—because the liner inside is removable: “Simply separate the plastic food-grade liner from the paper bottle and put them in your respective recycling bins.”


   



    The new Frugal Bottle has debuted with Italy’s Cantina Goccia who is using it for their 2017 3Q wine—a Sangiovese retailing in the UK for about $16. On top of its other benefits, this first bottle shows off another intriguing trait: The artwork can easily cover the entire surface.


   



    “When some of our top hotel customers saw samples of our paper wine bottle, there was no hesitation in their minds that this type of bottle would be well received in their dining rooms,” said Cantina Goccia owner Ceri Parke. “It’s much lighter than glass, easier to transport and friendlier to the planet."


   



    As of right now, Frugal Bottle doesn’t appear slated to arrive in the United States in the near future, but that could easily change. Frugalpac is currently taking orders for the machines used to produce the bottles, with delivery planned for next year—and though right now interest is primarily in the U.K. and Europe, nothing seems to preclude American companies from getting on board.


   



    “Frugalpac’s business model is to supply Frugal Bottle machines for wine producers or packaging companies to manufacture the bordeaux bottles on their site, cutting carbon emissions even further,” Waugh added. “Materials can be purchased locally through existing paperboard printers to give maximum freedom of design and the best commercial offering.”


   



    Naturally, the company offers an environmental pitch, as well. “Our mission is to design, develop and supply sustainable packaging. The Frugal Bottle is up to five times lighter than a glass bottle, has a carbon footprint up to six times lower and is easy to recycle again,” explained Frugalpac chief executive Malcolm Waugh. “We’ve had fantastic feedback from people who’ve trialed the Frugal Bottle. As well as the superior environmental benefits, it looks and feels like no other bottle you have ever seen.”


   



    Digging into the specifics, a Frugal Bottle weighs about 3 ounces, whereas ice wine bottles can weigh about a pound. Additionally, Frugalpac says that beyond offering a carbon footprint that is 84 percent lower than a glass bottle, it’s also “more than a third less than a bottle made from 100 paper recycled plastic,” with a “water footprint is also at least four times lower than glass.” And, yes, the paper bottle is easy to recycle—because the liner inside is removable: “Simply separate the plastic food-grade liner from the paper bottle and put them in your respective recycling bins.”


   



    Shops in Scotland have become the first place in the UK to stock wine in paper bottles in a move which aims to reduce the carbon footprint associated with glass bottles.


   



    Three Scottish off licences will sell the Italian wine in its new lightweight, recyclable container, which the manufacturers say has a carbon footprint up to six times (84 per cent) lower than a glass bottle and more than a third less than a bottle made from 100 per cent recycled plastic.


   



    The 75cl bottle, manufactured by Ipswitch-based company Frugalpac is made from 94 per cent recycled paperboard and has gone on sale for the first time at Woodwinters Wine and Whiskies stores.


   



    The wine is from Italian vineyard Cantina Goccia and is a blend of Sangiovese, Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes.


   



    But the manufacturers said the bottle can also be used for spirits such as whisky, gin, vodka and rum, and has already sparked a interest in a drinks industry keen to cut their emissions and appeal to a new audience of consumers interested in sustainability.


   



   



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    For many of us wine drinkers, our first conscious act towards saving the planet was to separate champagne bottles from the rest of our rubbish. It made us feel pretty good, even though most of us were — and continue to be — shockingly ignorant about what then happens to them.


   



    Today, few really understand the relative merits of different forms of packaging for wine in terms of sustainability. And this is hardly surprising, since even those whose job it is to study such things admit that the whole subject is hugely complex and definitive statistics are extremely difficult to come by.


   



    To the average consumer, a glass bottle may seem virtuous because they generally assume that it’s both recycled and recyclable. Hence when the European glass manufacturers association, FEVE, commissioned a consumer research project last year involving 10,000 15-minute interviews in 13 European countries, it was able to boast that 91 per cent of interviewees agreed glass is the best packaging material for wine. (Brits are the most sceptical about glass, apparently — only 82 per cent of us agreed.)


   



    On the strength of this research, Europe’s glass manufacturers have come up with a new hallmark on bottles that, as far as I can make out, merely confirms that the bottle you have in your hand is indeed made of glass, even if the design of the logo vaguely suggests recyclability.


   



    The official online presentation of this innovation last November skipped lightly over the massive carbon footprint of producing and transporting glass bottles, the biggest factors in any winemaker’s carbon audit. A greener sort of furnace, which relies more on electric power than fossil fuels, is being piloted in Germany over the next few years, yet it will require considerable effort and investment for bottle manufacturers to reach FEVE’s ambition of carbon neutrality by 2050.


   



   



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    One of the keys to this is, of course, recycling rates. The figure FEVE likes to quote is that Europe’s “average glass collection for recycling rate” is 76 per cent (which it would like to see reach 90 per cent by 2030), though it acknowledges that not all of this will ultimately be recycled.


   



    In the UK, each local authority is in charge of contracting waste management, which means that standards and practices can vary enormously from place to place. Overall, only 68 per cent of all glass containers in the UK are recycled, compared with well over 90 per cent in Switzerland and Scandinavia. (Swiss citizens are incentivised by a combination of free glass collection points and a tax on bags for general rubbish.) The British Standards Institution, which sets national standards for everything from financial services to medical devices, would like to see recycling protocols harmonised.


   



    Recycling bottles is complicated. They come in all sorts of colours which have to be separated from each other, while labels and foils have to be removed. The farsighted Torres winemaking family in Catalonia is pressing for a standard wine bottle that could be recycled and reused anywhere in the world — or at least anywhere in Europe to begin with.


   



    Yet this would require EU legislation, admits Miguel Torres, which seems a very distant possibility to me, when so many wine producers choose to use bottle design and weight — especially weight — to try to carve out a distinctive identity for their wines. (It was notable in a recent online forum on the future of wine that the greatest opprobrium was directed towards those who use heavy bottles unnecessarily.)


   



    Increased awareness of sustainability issues has also resulted in a flurry of new designs for wine packaging. These include a replica of a standard bottle from Frugalpac, which is made from 94 per cent recycled paperboard (and “a food-grade liner”) that can in turn be recycled.


   



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    One of the most energetic and thoughtful innovators on this side of the Atlantic has been Santiago Navarro, chief executive of Gar?on Wines. He has designed an almost flat wine bottle that can fit through a letter box and is much lighter, considerably more space-saving and less fragile than the traditional glass bottle. If the option of an active oxygen scavenger is applied, the wine will stay fresh for more than 12 months before opening, he claims.


   



    A keen diver, he is well aware of the problems of plastic waste, as highlighted so vividly by David Attenborough in his Blue Planet series. Even though the food-friendly PET plastic from which Navarro’s smooth, olive-green bottle is moulded has already been used once — and in general plastic has a much lower carbon footprint than single-use glass — some consumers are convinced that all plastic is evil.


   



    In fact, there are many different forms of plastic, of which PET is arguably the most sustainable, and Navarro treasures the letter he received from Sir David congratulating him on his novel design.


   



    The problem with plastic is not so much the material itself but how to manage it after use. According to the British Plastics Federation, about 50 per cent of all plastic in the UK is recycled. Yet unlike glass, which can be recycled many times, plastic can be recycled effectively much less often because it degrades — though work is ongoing to improve this.


   



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    Wine in cans is becoming popular in the US, where a high proportion of all drinks is sold in cans already. They tend to be much smaller than a regular bottle and, let’s face it, there are some pretty huge disadvantages to the 75cl bottle. It’s way too much for one person, often too much for two at a single sitting, and the unit price is far higher than a can’s, which some younger potential wine drinkers in particular find off-putting. Cans are convenient: they can easily be popped into a picnic bag or even, should we return to office life, a briefcase.


   



    Made from steel or aluminium, they can also be recycled almost infinitely. Still, like glass, the manufacturing process is heavy on energy and resources.


   



    Glass, so usefully inert, will surely remain the material of choice for fine wine that deserves long ageing, but for the sake of the planet we do need to look more favourably on the alternatives for that which is drunk within days or weeks of purchase — which constitutes by far the majority of all wine sold.


   



    Borough Wines in London deserves mention for its work founding Sustainable Wine Solutions, which offers a bottle return scheme, a refillable box (a “zero-waste alternative to bag-in-box”) and what it claims are “the UK’s only 100 per cent reusable kegs”. The latter are a fine solution for restaurants and bars — should they ever be in business again.


   



    This article has been amended since publication to make clear that latest government figures show 68 per cent of glass in the UK is recycled, not 50 per cent as originally stated


   



    Tasting notes on Purple Pages of JancisRobinson.com


   



    Follow Jancis on Twitter @JancisRobinson


   



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What are the advantages of time recording machine in an office ?

    What are the advantages of time recording machine in an office ?


    Showing up for work punctually, at an official time, became expected behavior toward the end of the 19th century, as more and more people worked for others rather than for themselves. Not just the work force's punctuality was at issue. Cost accounting and analysis--recording and scrutinizing expenses for labor, materials and overhead--were getting more attention than ever before. Time was money.


    In the 1890s, timekeepers-- clerks who kept track of employees' hours in handwritten logs --found that machines were beginning to replace them, especially in workplaces with large numbers of employees. Thanks to the influence of the advocates of scientific management, nearly every industrial workplace had a time clock, after about 1910. So did many offices. By the early twentieth century the International Time Recording Company supplied an entire line of timekeeping devices, including master clocks, several types of time clocks, and time stamps. Founded in 1900, the firm continuously expanded its product line, underwent several reorganizations and name changes, and emerged in 1924 as the International Business Machine Corporation, familiar today as IBM.One of the firm's most popular products was the card punch time recorder, a clock that could furnish a daily or weekly record of up to 150 employees. Based on the 1888 patent of physician Alexander Dey, the dial time recorder was essentially a spring-driven clock with a cast-iron wheel affixed to its dial side. The rim of the wheel was perforated with numbered holes. As employees pressed a rotating pointer into the hole at their assigned number, the machine recorded the time on a preprinted sheet and rang a bell with each punch. A two-color ribbon printed all regular time in green and all tardiness, early departures, and overtime in red.This International digital card punch time recorder hung in a factory in the garment district of New York City.


   



    Time recording clock is a time recording machine used to record the lime of arrival and departure of an employee. The time is recorded on the card allotted to each employee of the organisation. The card is punched in this machine, which records the time of arrival and departure automatically. These machines are fitted with a clock to show the time. The advantages of the use of time recording machines are:


   



    (a) It records the actual time of arrival and departure.


   



    (b) It is not possible to manipulate the time in case of late arrival or early departure.


   



    It is necessary to keep proper record of time for each worker as it ensures discipline, increases morale and makes him punctual.


   



    This function of keeping proper record of time is looked after by the time-keeping department. In a small organisation, such a department may not exist at all since the time of coming and going can be easily regulated by the person in changes of operations in the factory or the office.


   



    Time keeping is a system of recording the time of arrival and departure of workers; it provides a record of total time spent by each worker engaged in the factory. On the basis of this record, wages are paid to the workers under time rate system.


   



    The regal contains the columns like name and identity no. of the worker, the department in which he is working, arrival and departure time. As soon as a worker enters into the preprint of the factory, the necessary entries in the attendance register are completed. If workers are literate; they are required to sign the attendance register.


   



    After the reports time workers are marked late or absent as the case may be. Similar entries are made the time of departure.


   



    This method is very simple and inexpensive. But in a large factory this meth may become inconvenient. Moreover, this method is liable for many undesirable’ practices on the part of the persons who record the attendance in collusion with sour workers. This method is suitable for small factories and out-doors workers.


   



    Under this method, each worker is allotted a metal disc or token bearing his identification. On each disc or token the name and number of the worker is engraved or painted. All the tokens 01; discs are hung on a board at the gate or at the entrance of the department.


   



    As soon as a worker reports for duty, he removes his disc and puts it in a box provided nearby. Immediately after the scheduled time of entry, the board is removed and a list is prepared for all such discs or tokens not collected and dropped into the box by the workers.


   



    The late-comers collect their discs and hand over the same personally to the time keeper. The list of late-comers is prepared separately. The discs not removed from the boards represent the absentee workers.


   



    This method is simple and economical. But it is not free from abuses. A worker may remove the disc of his fellow-worker to ensure his presence who is either late or absent.


    There is no certainty that the exact arrival time of the workers has been recorded. The time keeper marking the attendance may commit errors deliberately or through carelessness and this may create disputes. Time keeper may include the dummy or ghost workers in the muster roll that cannot be easily detected except by close supervision.


   



    2. Mechanical Methods


   



    Different mechanical devices have been designed for recording the exact time of the workers. These include:


   



    (a) Time Recording Clocks


   



    (b) analogue card punch time recorder


   



    (a) Time Recording Clocks


   



    This method has been developed to remove some of the difficulties faced in case of manual methods. Under this method, the attendance is marked by a time recording clock on a card. Every worker is allotted a time card usually for one week duration.


   



    These time cards are serially arranged in a tray at the gate of the factory. On arrival the worker picks up his card from the tray and inserts the same into the time recording clock which prints the exact arrival time at the space provided on the card against the particular day.


   



    This process is repeated when the worker leaves the factory after day’s work. Other particulars of time in respect of late arrival, lunch, and overtime are printed is red colour so as to distinguish these from normal period spent in the factory.


   



    This method is useful when the number of workers is fairly large. There are also no chances of disputes arising due to recording of time of workers as it is recorded by the clock and not by the time keeper.


   



    But there are chances that a worker may get his friend’s card from the tray and mark him present in time when he is actually late or absent. Any mechanical defect may adversely affect the working of time recording system.


   



    The dial time recorder is a machine which records the correct attendance time of the worker automatically. It has a dial around the clock with a number of hold (usually about 150), each of which bears a number corresponding to the identification number of the worker concerned.


   



    There is a radial arm at the centre of the dial. While a worker enters into the factory; he is required to press the radial arm after placing ill at the appropriate hole. The time recorder then automatically records the time on a roll of paper within the machine against the number of the worker.


   



    This machine can also! calculate the wages of the workers with greater accuracy and avoids much loss of time, I But a heavy capital investment is needed and hence only large organisations can use It is also necessary to have a close supervision on every worker to prevent fraud and I irregularities.


    Make employee scheduling and pay calculation easier with this fingerprint time attendance. A perfect choice for tracking hours in busy workplaces, this time stamp keeps accurate time within fractions of a second by automatically syncing with codes from the National Institute of Standards and Technology. This device automatically adjusts for Daylight Saving Time and ensures consistent accuracy during power failures using an internal battery backup. Featuring over 150 print configurations and 13 messages in four languages, this device makes it easy to print custom messages in two hour formats and a variety of font sizes. Compatible with a variety of forms and time cards, this flexible machine aligns any document perfectly with an internal LED and a window over the print area. This Acroprint time recorder informs users of the time and date with a large, bold display.


   



    Black/gray punch card time clock system for unlimited number of employees


    LCD display helps you keep track of time by showing the time and date in 24- or 12-hour format


    Durable construction and key lock help protect clock and settings from damage or tampering


    Employees use printable time cards


    Dimensions: 5.63"H x 6.45"W x 6.77"D


    Desk- or wall-mountable for flexible and convenient placement


    Battery backup protects data and settings during power outages


    Selectable language format: English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish


    2-year manufacturer limited warranty


    No resetting needed.The LCD backlight digital time punching machine synchronizes automatically with time codes transmitted by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, keeping it incredibly accurate. The internal battery backup keeps the clock on time, even during power outages.Flexible options.With over 150 possible print configurations and 13 preset messages in your choice of four languages, the ES700 easily supports a wide variety of time & attendance and document control applications. This time stamp accomodates virtually any time card, document or form, offering adjustable print font size, your choice of automatic, semi-automatic or manual print operation, and left or right hand print. The power supply is switchable from 120V to 240V.Easy to use.Cards and documents are a snap to align correctly, thanks to a handy window in the cover and a bright internal LED illuminating the document print area.

All About Knitted Hats

    All About Knitted Hats


    Quarantine has sparked plenty of new at-home hobbies. Maybe you picked up a paintbrush and tapped into your inner artist. Or, you might have transformed your kitchen into a bakery. For some, perfecting their knitting and crocheting skills even led to a business — which is why you're likely seeing the knit hat trend unexpectedly taking off on Instagram.


   



    For Delsy Gouw, founder of Brooklyn-based label Its Memorial day, crocheting started out as a fun activity. "[It] originally started as an online Depop vintage shop [in 2019] but when Covid hit, I wasn’t able to source any goods," she tells TZR. "I also lost my job and found myself with a lot of time on my hands." Gouw picked up the old hobby of hers and began making items for friends, and then her friends' friends were requesting pieces, too. She then began crafting knit hats because she believed the demand was there. "I started with bags but when I posted them so many of my friends and followers asked when or if I’d be open to making hats and taking customs for hats," Gouw tells TZR. While trends typically fade away and come back later on, Gouw hopes this style will stay long-term. "[I] can’t speak for knitting, but the way crochet is done is truly so intricate, unique, and is made to last," she explains. "Crochet can only be done by hand so I think there is something special about having an accessory that is unique and handmade." Fans of Gouw's emerging brand include influencers like Reese Blutstein, Jo Rosenthal, and Ella Emhoff.


   



    Who knows when the first person decided to put something over their head to keep it warm, but knitters know that knitted hats for women are some of the most fun and easy things to knit.


   



    When they’re worked in the round there is little in the way of shaping, except when you get to the crown.


   



    Most hats are worked from the bottom up, with stitches cast-on and worked in a snug stitch pattern such as ribbing, or in stockinette for a rolled bring hat, using a smaller size needle than is used for the head portion of the hat.


   



    In many hat patterns, the hat is worked straight for the desired length of the crown, then nearly all of the stitches are evenly decreased over the course of just a few rounds.


   



    The yarn is cut, the tail threaded through the remaining stitches, pulled tight, and fastened off to the inside of the hat.


   



    The hat can be topped with a pom pom, i-cord, tassel, or whatever embellishment strikes your fancy.


   



    A great book for learning to make hats is Ann Budd’s Handy Book of Patterns, from which some of the material on this page is excerpted. There are chapters on basic hats as well as the type of hats called “tams.”


   



    There are several types of hats, but the most popular knitted hats for men are beanie-type caps, tams (sometimes called “berets”), slouch hats, earflap hats, and tuques.


   



    Beanies: These hats can be super simple or dressed up with a lace or cable patterns. In cooler climates, they’re wonderful gifts for knitters to make.


   



    Tams/Berets: There are so many different stitch patterns to use in this style. Tams and berets can be plain stockinette or intricate Fair Isle. This style of hat is really flattering on just about every face shape, too.


   



    Earflap Hats: These hats are popular in cold climates. They’re great for keeping ears warm and they’re fun to knit. The knitters of Peru specialize in these hats, as shown in the photo at right.


   



    Often a knitted hats for children will have a finished size that is smaller than the average adult head. That’s because hats meant to fit closely at the brim need a bit of negative ease to help them fit snugly and keep them on the head.


   



    The amount of negative ease refers to the difference between the finished size of the object and the size of body part on which it will be worn. A hat that measures 19″ (48.5 cm) around and is worn on a 22″ (56 cm) head has 3″ (7.5 cm) of negative ease.


   



    A beret-type hat might have negative ease at the brim, but a few inches of positive ease in the body of the hat. The extra fabric is what creates its loose, flowing shape, while the tighter brim keeps it fitted to the head.


   



    Hats are a natural for circular knitting (or knitting in the round). This project for circular-knit adult hats offers three brim styles: hemmed, ribbed, and rolled stockinette. Whichever brim you choose, the directions call for shaping the top. Work this hat in plain stockinette stitch in a colorful or fashion yarn, or customize it by working the colorwork pattern included here. But don’t feel tied to those two options — use this hat as a canvas to express yourself.


   



    If you knit the hat on one 16-inch circular needle, you’ll need to switch to double-pointed needles (or one of the other methods) at some point during the crown decreases because the stitches will no longer reach comfortably around the needle. It is easiest to knit hats using the magic-loop method with one long circular needle.


   



    Choose a size


    Determine the circumference you want for the hat. Most hats should be knit with negative ease (. Measure around the widest part of the intended wearer’s head and subtract 1?2 to 1-1?2 inches from that measurement to calculate the hat circumference.


   



    A hemmed brim is not as stretchy as a rolled or ribbed brim, so it’s best not to include too much negative ease when using this hem.


   



    Choose yarn and determine the gauge


    Yarn for adult hats can run the gamut from practical to frivolous and fun. If you want a warm winter hat, for example, choose a yarn that is warm and durable, and knit it at a tighter gauge than recommended on the ball band. This results in a denser fabric that better retains heat. If, on the other hand, you are creating a fun accessory, you might choose a fashion yarn that adds a little flair. Because this hat is such a simple shape, it’s a great way to show off variegated or self-striping yarns.


   



    To keep cool but stay warm during winter, you can’t skimp on great outerwear or outfit-making boots. The same goes for cold-weather accessories too: Because for the majority of the season, coats, boots, and, in this case, winter hats do most of the talking when it comes to bundling up while keeping things stylish. In order to break free from your standard winter-outfit formulas—and to keep your looks from looking like, well, everybody else—consider accessorizing functionally and fashionably this season. Here, find four headwear trends not to be missed, and shop 24 of the best winter hats, inspired by the most stylish women on the streets, from New York to Paris.


   



    Buckets and Beyond


    After runway debuts at Fendi and Loewe, the winter-ready hand knitted hat took over the streets last February—and this season the ’90s trend has continued to gain momentum. From shaggy faux furs to fuzzy angoras, from shearling to sherpa styles, the winter bucket hat is one of the cutest and coziest accessories of the season.


   



    The ribbed-knit beanie has earned its place as a winter style staple for everyone from downtown urbanites to alpine skiers. New Yorkers might prefer sleek styles in a neutral color palette like black and speckled gray. Meanwhile, a pop of color would bring the perfect amount of joyous street-style-inspired Scandi chic to any drab winter look. And for those who wish to channel a bit of après-ski flair in their daily commute, look no further than one with a floppy, fluffy pom-pom.


   



    The trapper hat is no longer just for the rugged outdoorsman or Elmer Fudd. Not convinced? The trapper has been deemed stylish enough for even the Parisians—in fact a black faux-fur version was spotted on the streets topping off a geometric-print coat, leather pants, and blue ankle booties for the ultimate in warmth and style. Et voilà! Not to mention everyone from classic winter-weather brands to It labels are backing the trapper trend—Heurueh, Kule, and R13 to name just a few. You heard it here first: The trapper is the ultimate winter hat for women this season.


    On the tiny Peruvian island of Taquile, a man's worth isn't measured in his ability to hunt or fish, but in his ability to knit.


   



    Alejandro Flores Huatta was born on the 1,300-person island, which is located on the Peruvian side of Lake Titicaca, a three-hour boat ride from the nearest city of Puno. The 67-year-old learned how to knit the iconic chullo (a tall, floppy Andean hat) as a child, with his older brother and grandfather teaching him by using the thorns of a cactus as knitting needles.


   



    "Most of the people learn by looking, watching. Because I don't have a father, my older brother [and grandfather] taught me to knit. So by watching, I learned little by little," he said, speaking through a Quechua translator.


   



    Taquile is famous for its textiles and clothing, and while women weave and tend to the sheep that provide the wool, men are the ones who exclusively produce the island's knitting cap for baby. The chullos are seen as culturally significant, playing a key role in the island's social structure and allowing men to show their creativity while also displaying their marital status, dreams and aspirations – some men even use it to show their mood. It's a tradition that islanders are working hard to preserve.


   



    Residents were relatively cut off from the mainland until the 1950s, and the island's isolation has helped to keep its heritage and way of life intact. Locals abide by the Inca code of "Ama sua, ama llulla, ama qhilla", (Quechua for, "Do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy&quot. Taquileans are farmers traditionally; the six island communities take turns to rotate crops of potato, corn, beans and barley in terraces on the mountainsides. They raise sheep, guinea pigs, chickens and pigs on the land and fish in the lake. Tourism kicked off in the 1970s, giving locals a source of income with tens of thousands of visitors drawn to the island annually to tour the villages and surrounding lake. Visitors typically stay with locals in humble, family-run accommodations; lend a hand-harvesting crops; try local specialties like fried trout and potatoes with rice, beans and mint tea; and purchase the island's famous handmade textiles.


   



    Hats reveal men's marital status, dreams and aspirations


    In 2005, Taquile's textile art was deemed so valuable that Unesco deemed it an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Alejandro is one of the seven men on the island recognised as a Master of Textiles, along with the island's president, Juan Quispe Huatta.


   



    The tradition has been around for the better part of 500 years, with roots in the ancient civilisations of the Inca, Pukara and Colla peoples. The Inca in particular, used their headdresses in a similar way to the Taquilean chullo, to display the specific insignia of their particular province – but that’s where the similarities end. The Taquilean chullo and the Inca headdresses look vastly different. The elders of the island tell of the chullo design arriving with the Spanish conquest in 1535, and Alejandro's grandfather passed on stories of the early conquerors wearing similar hats that were white with ear covers, "but not the same patterns or symbols," Alejandro said.