Understanding Pipe Fittings

    Understanding Pipe Fittings


    Pipe fittings are components used to join pipe sections together with other fluid control products like valves and pumps to create pipelines. The common connotation for the term fittings is associated with the ones used for metal and plastic pipes which carry fluids. There are also other forms of malleable iron pipe fitting that can be used to connect pipes for handrails and other architectural elements, where providing a leak-proof connection is not a requirement. Pipe fittings may be welded or threaded, mechanically joined, or chemically adhered, to name the most common mechanisms, depending on the material of the pipe.


   



    There is some inconsistency in terminology surrounding the terms pipe, tube, and tubing. Therefore, the term Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting will sometimes be mentioned in the context of tubing as well as pipe. While similar in shape to tube fittings, pipe fittings are seldom joined by methods such as soldering. Some methods overlap, such as the use of compression fittings, but where these are commonplace for connecting tubes or tubing, their use in pipe connections is rarer. It suffices to say that while there are general distinctions, the common usage of terms can differ from supplier-to-supplier, although they represent the same items.


   



    In this article, the concentration will be on discussing typical fittings and connection methods associated with rigid pipe and piping, with a limited presentation of the fittings that are associated with flexible tubes, tubing, or hose.


   



    To learn more about the varieties of pipe, consult our related guide to pipe and piping.


   



    Pipe Fittings Explained: Fitting Materials and Manufacturing Processes


    Cast and malleable iron


    Fittings for cast iron pipe fall under hubless and bell-and-spigot styles. Hubless designs rely on elastomeric couplers that are secured to the outer diameters of the pipe or fitting by clamps, usually a stainless steel band clamp that compresses the elastomeric material and forms a seal. These hubless or no hub designs are sometimes referred to as rubber pipe couplings or rubber plumbing couplings and are especially popular for transitioning from one material to another—from copper to cast iron, for instance. Bell-and-spigot, or sometimes, hub-and-spigot, fittings are joined today primarily with elastomeric gaskets that fit inside the bell and accommodate the insertion of the plain pipe end or fitting. Older systems before the 1950s were caulked using a combination of molten lead and a fibrous material such as oakum. Cast iron pipe is sometimes joined with bolted flanges, or in some cases, mechanical compression connections. Flanged joints employed in underground applications can subject the pipe to settlement stresses unless the pipe is adequately supported.


   



    While there are both malleable iron pipe fittings and ductile iron pipe fittings available, the improved mechanical properties and lower cost of ductile iron is causing a shift towards greater use of that material.


   



    Fittings for steel (aka, “black pipe”) and galvanized pipe as found in residential and commercial plumbing work are generally cast and referred to as “malleable iron fittings." They can be galvanized. Although standards list threaded fittings up to fairly large diameters, these generally are not used today as the threading of large-diameter pipe is considered needlessly difficult.


   



    Steel and steel alloys


    Galvanized malleable iron pipe fittings are often extruded or drawn over a mandrel from welded or seamless pipe. In smaller sizes they are often threaded to match threads on the ends of pipe. As sizes and pressures increase, they are often welded in place by either butt-weld or socket-weld methods. Socket-weld fittings, usually forged, are restricted to smaller pipe diameters (up to NPS 4, but usually NPS 2 or smaller) and are available in 3000, 6000, and 9000 class pressure ratings, corresponding to Schedule 40, 80, and 160 pipe. Socket fittings are welded into place with fillet welds, which makes them weaker than butt- welded fittings, but still preferable to threaded fittings for high-end work. The need for an expansion gap in the fitting precludes their use in high-pressure food applications.


   



    Flanges are also used, with the resulting flanged sections of pipe connected via bolts. The use of flanges makes breaking the pipeline feasible so as to enable replacement of valves, etc. Most pipeline equipment such as pumps and compressors are also connected via flanges for this same reason.


   



    Flange fittings are available in a handful of styles, rated by pressure and temperature. These styles include lapped, weld neck, socket weld, ring-type joint, screwed, and slip-on. The threaded flange is suitable only for low- to medium-pressure applications. The other various welded-on flanges permit higher pressures to be used. Lapped flanges are often used where disconnections will be frequent as the flange can spin freely, simplifying bolt-hole alignment. A special case is the so-called blind flange, which is used to seal the end of a pipeline but allow connection to another pipe or piece of equipment later.


   



    Flanges can incorporate several different methods to seal adjoining faces, including O-rings, seal rings, and gaskets. Seal rings provide an especially tight joint and for the same bolt stress applied to a flat-face gasket, can resist a higher pressure.


   



    Primarily, three standards govern pipe flanges. ASME 16.5 defines the ANSI flange, the most commonly-used flange. ASME B16.47 covers two series, A and B, which represent large diameter applications. Series A flanges are heavier and thicker than Series B for the same pressure and size. Series B flanges are normally selected for refurbishment work. ASME B16.1 defines the AWWS flange, but it is only for flanges used in potable-water service at atmospheric temperatures. Then, there is the so-called Industry Standard flange which is not defined by a governing body but instead reflects historical practice. The dimensions for these flanges are covered by ASME B16.1, the standard for 25, 125, and 250 class cast-iron-pipe flange and flange fittings.


   



    Stainless steel pipe fittings can be used for sanitary applications such as food and dairy processing, and are commonly fitted with quick-connect clamps to enable dismantling of the line for internal cleaning. The flanges for these clamping systems are available as weld-on entities or in many instances available as wyes, tees, etc. with the flange integral to the fitting.


   



    Metal pipes sections may also be joined and built up as pipelines using pipe couplings and other standard black malleable iron pipe fitting such as metal pipe end caps or 180-degree pipe elbows.


   



    Nonferrous


    Aluminum fittings are typically cast. They are available in all the same forms or shapes as steel fittings. Aluminum threaded fittings such as caps or nipples are available, as are fittings that feature a combination of threaded and butt weld connection styles. Socket weld options also exist. Welding of aluminum fittings usually requires a MIG or TIG process.


   



    Aluminum pipe is also a popular choice for use in creating handrails, and a host of fittings for structural applications are available, both weldable and slip on/clamp-on varieties.


   



    Red brass fittings such as brass pipe nipples are available corresponding to pipe diameters, and these are often assembled by soldering or brazing.


   



    Concrete


    Concrete pipe fittings are available in a variety of styles suitable to their application in large civil projects such as storm-water control. Aside from the typical wye connections, specialized fittings include utility hole portals and various styles of vaults. Typical connections use shouldered ends on the fittings which mate with counterparts on the receiving pipes. A rubber gasket provides for a leakproof joint.


   



    Plastics


    Plastic pipe fittings are available in both socket weld (sometimes called solvent weld) and threaded styles, with the former the most common. Socket weld fittings are designed to be welded in place chemically, thereby making installation quick and straightforward to complete. Plastic pipes are usually dry fitted, then marked, as the solvent used to connect them is especially fast-acting. Couplings are typically used to connect and join straight lengths of pipe together.


   



    Fittings are available in standard shapes and styles and with the dimensional size ranges of material common to plastic pipe, including PVC, CPVC, PE, PEX, PP, and ABS.


   



    Common PVC pipe fittings include reducers, elbows, caps, tees, wyes, couplings, unions, and crosses, to name a few. The standard cross-sectional profile for most PVC pipe or tubing fittings is circular, but there are other profile shapes available, such as square PVC fittings. However, these alternative fitting profiles are usually associated with PVC pipe that is designated for structural use, such as fences, railings, or furniture grade use, and are not associated with PVC pipe that is fluid handling applications. Besides PVC, other materials may be used for structural fittings, one example being galvanized pipe railing fittings.


   



    Other PVC fittings include barbed insert designs, which are intended to be used with tubing and are pressed into the tubing and secured with band clamps.


   



    CPCV pipe fittings, as well as ABS pipe fittings (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), also are usually joined with fittings that are solvent welded. Suitable conversion adapters for changing material types, such as from CPVC to brass, are also commonly available.


   



    In some applications using plastic pipe, such as in plumbing for sink drains, certain pipe fixtures such as p-traps may be joined with a threaded connection using nylon washers and a retaining or locking nut. This feature facilitates easy disassembly to clear clogs.


   



    Polyethylene pipe fittings and polypropylene Galavanized carbon steel pipe fitting are usually available with both threaded style or barbed style connections, and socket weld or fused options being also available. Similarly, PDVF pipe fittings also are produced with socket or threaded connections.


   



    Where an air or watertight seal is needed, nylon pipe fittings may be employed and can be used with nylon tube or pipe as well as with other types of plastic or metal pipe.


   



    Glass


    In some specialized industrial fluid process settings, glass pipe and fittings are employed. Borosilicate glass offers several key advantages over alternative forms of piping systems. The material has high purity, so it will not contaminate process fluids. The natural transparency of glass permits the inspection of the process as needed, while the smooth surface prevents the development of scale or other residues on the interior surface of the pipe.


   



    Laboratory applications may also frequently employ glass tubing and glass profile fittings.


   



    Glass pipe should not be confused with pipes that employ a glass lining, which would be more correctly identified as glass-lined pipe.


   



    Vitrified clay


    Fittings for vitrified clay pipe are available in the typical configurations required for sewer installations. Like cast iron, bell-and-spigot is the usual coupling method for these fittings, with an O-ring or gasket used to seal the joint.


   



    Types of Pipe Fittings: Applications and Industries


    Callouts


    Threaded fittings follow a standardized format on drawings. The nominal dimension comes before the description. When two or more ends of the fitting are not of the same dimension, the dimension of the run precedes those of the branches, or for reducing fittings, the largest dimension precedes the smallest dimension. Thus, a 1 x 1 x 3/4 Street Tee; a 1 x 1x 3/4 45° Y Bend; a 1 x 3/4 x 1/2 x 1/4 Cross; and so forth. The thread size on threaded fittings will correspond to the nominal pipe size thread as specified by ANSI.


   



    Thread Types


    Most pipe applications use threaded fittings whose connections can be typically characterized by one of the following systems:


   



    American National Standard Pipe Threads (NPT)


    British Standard Pipe Threads (BSPT)


    The principal difference between these two is the taper angle. The NPT system uses a thread taper angle of 60 degrees, whereas the British Standard Pipe Thread (BPST) fittings use a slightly lower taper angle of 55 degrees. In addition to threaded pipe fittings which are tapered, these systems also specify straight pipe thread fittings, which do not rely on a taper to seal against pressure loss or leaks. Generally, a suitable sealant is needed to assure that the seal integrity of the joint or connection is achieved. Most threaded pipe fittings are designed to be right-hand threads, but there are some left-handed (LH) thread options available.


   



    Metric pipe fittings are also available, identified by the nominal outside diameter and the thread pitch. So an M12 x 1.5 metric pipe nipple would have an outside diameter of 12 millimeters and a thread pitch of 1.5 threads per millimeter.


   



    Screw fittings are usually threaded internally. The exception is the street fitting, which, in the case of a simple elbow, has one external thread and one internal thread. Pipes are readily threaded in the field. Joining threaded pipes and fittings can be aided by Teflon tape or pipe compound. When applying the compound, it is recommended that it be placed on the external thread only, to avoid introducing any impurities into the pipeline during joint assembly.


   



    Piping layouts are generally one-line or two-line drawings, depending on the complexity of the installation. Where clearances are tight,and for many shop-fabricated pipelines, the two-line drawing is used, which shows the pipe dimensionally to scale. For simpler installations, the one-line drawing suffices, with fittings, valves, etc. designated symbolically. Pipeline drawings are sometimes shown as “developed,” which assumes the vertical pipes are revolved into the horizontal plane, or vice versa, to allow the entire piping system to be shown in the same plane.


   



    Weldolets


    These small, weldable branch fittings reinforce the pipe where a hole is made, eliminating the need to add reinforcing. Different forms of these fittings are available under various trademarks, covering butt- and socket-welded styles, thread-on varieties, as well as some special designs which enable connections at elbows, etc.


   



    Welding process


    Pipe ends and flanges are prepared for butt welding according to pipe-wall thickness. For walls 3/4 inch thick or less, the walls are beveled to an included angle of 70° and a 3/16 inch gap is left between them. The welder makes a root pass, a fill pass (or passes), and a capping pass, often varying the filler material between passes. For larger thickness, the pipe is tapered to a similar angle but only partway up the wall. In addition, a small relief angle is ground on the inside wall, serving as the location for a backing ring. Socket welds are generally used for thinner-walled pipes. Welding procedures are spelled out by an engineer in Weld Procedure Specifications and the welder making the weld will be certified for the specific process. Pipes sometimes must be preheated prior to welding and heat-treated after to relieve heat stress.


   



    The necessity of proper pipe-end preparation and the need for careful fit-up prior to joining butt-welded fittings makes the use of socket-weld fittings appealing. No bevel is required for socket-weld fittings and the socket itself serves to align the pipe. About the only special requirement is that the pipe must be backed out of the fitting slightly to allow for expansion during the weld.


   



    Prefabrication of pipeline sections, called “spools,” is often done indoors where automation can be applied to the fabrication process. Pipes joints can be rolled on slow turning machines to bring the work to the welder. Robot welders can be used. Techniques such as submerged-arc welding can be applied for productivity gains.


   



    There are non-welded pipe fittings or no weld pipe connectors available as alternatives to the traditionally welded piping systems. Using a combination of swaged mechanical fittings along with the cold bending of pipe or tubing, this solution eliminates the stresses to the pipeline from the welding operation, reduces costs, and can provide for a modular system that is easier to disassemble or modify as needed.


   



    Plastic pipe, and HDPE pipe, in particular, can be joined by heat welding, sometimes referred to as electrofusion welding. Pipes can be butt-welded or socket-welded. This is a fairly common practice for large-diameter HDPE pipeline installations. A range of specialized equipment is available for producing these welds.

Are Blankets the New Going-Out Accessory?

    Are Blankets the New Going-Out Accessory?


    From Sarah Jessica Parker’s monogrammed Burberry poncho to Norma Kamali’s Sleeping Bag Coat, fashion has long embraced blanket-inspired styles. During a time when most socializing takes place outdoors, would you wear one outside the house?


    A weighted blanket is exactly what it sounds like - it’s a blanket with extra weight in it. Weighted blankets are unique as instead of being filled with cotton or down, it contains materials like glass beads to make them heavier. This weight is evenly distributed across the body for a feeling of being gently hugged. The deep touch pressure offered by the weighted blanket is supposed to make you feel safe, relaxed, and comfortable.


   



    Blankets, a symbol of coziness and warmth usually relegated to the indoors, can also be a great piece to layer for fall and winter outfits. Though temperatures are just starting to drop in New York City, WSJ. staffers have spotted a few in the wild—mostly while outdoor dining, which New York City recently extended permanently. (It was originally set to expire ahead of the winter months, on October 31.) For the first time in recent history, the preferred environment for socializing has become “anywhere outside.” And during a pandemic and period of worldwide unrest, most people are seeking comfort more than ever. As a replacement for the timeworn going-out top—obviously better suited to the indoors—the going-out blanket suddenly makes sense.


   



    Over the years, blankets have inspired fashion, from the upscale double layers blanket poncho that Sarah Jessica Parker wore in 2014, personalized with her initials, to Norma Kamali’s famous blanket-adjacent Sleeping Bag Coat, which she first designed in 1973. In 2012, Lenny Kravitz went viral after being photographed by paparazzi while ensconced in an enormous scarf on his way to buy groceries. Six years later, he defended the accessory on an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. “But Lenny,” Fallon said, “this is not a scarf. This is a blanket.”


   



    After my sister gave me a weighted blanket for Christmas, it became the gift that I didn't know I needed. It's one of the best things ever to happen to me.


   



    As someone with anxiety, I've struggled with restful sleep: Falling asleep can take up to two hours, or I wake up at least twice during the night.


    The first night I started sleeping underneath a 15-pound flannel blanket, I slept straight through the night for the first time in months and felt more rested during the day. After a few days of good sleep, I learned that my sister had done her gift research — she had read that people with anxiety tended to feel more grounded when using the blankets.


   



    Fascinated, I asked experts on mental health and sleep to explain why these heavy blankets — which are filled with plastic, glass or metal particles and layered with extra fabric — have eased the, ahem, weight of some people's anxiety-related sleep struggles.


    Weighted blankets, which range from 5 to 30 pounds (2.27 to 13.6 kilograms), have been used by special needs educators and occupational therapists since the late 1990s, but have become mainstream in the last few years. Regular blankets can weigh around 3 to 5 pounds.


    The dominant theory is that weighted blankets provide deep pressure stimulation, a feeling that resembles a "firm, but gentle, squeeze or holding sensation and ... triggers these feelings of relaxation and of being calm," said pulmonary and sleep specialist Dr. Raj Dasgupta, an assistant professor of clinical medicine at Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California. Feeling relaxed is what decreases cortisol, a stress hormone that typically runs high in people with chronic anxiety, stress and other disorders, he added.


    There is evidence suggesting that deep pressure stimulation reduces sympathetic nervous system arousal — that's our fight-or-flight response — and increases parasympathetic activity, which may cause the calming effect, said Dr. Fariha Abbasi-Feinberg, the director of sleep medicine at Millennium Physician Group in Florida.


   



    Pressure to stimulate the sensation of touch to muscles and joints is the same proposed mechanism behind massage and acupressure, added Abbasi-Feinberg, who is also a neurologist on the American Academy of Sleep Medicine's board of directors. "This calming (effect) can promote better quality sleep."


    If you're interested in using a weighted blanket to aid sleep problems related to mental or sensory disorders, here's what you should know about their effectiveness, any caveats and how to choose one.


   



    Weighted blankets have been growing in popularity, but there isn't actually much research on their effectiveness. That may be due to the newness of weighted blankets, their relative harmlessness and that other health issues are more urgent for researchers to study, Dasgupta said.


    Some people with anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder or insomnia have reported improved quality of sleep and feeling more restful during the day, a few recent, small studies have found. Many study participants experienced a decrease of 50% or more in their Insomnia Severity Index scores after using a weighted blanket for four weeks, in comparison to 5.4% of the control group, according to a small study published in the Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine last September.


   



    In the follow-up phase of the study, which lasted one year, people who used fleece blanket continued to benefit. People who switched from lightweight control blankets to weighted blankets experienced similar effects. And those who used weighted blankets also reported better sleep maintenance, a higher daytime activity level, remission from insomnia symptoms and alleviated symptoms of anxiety, depression and fatigue.


    Researchers who studied the effects of weighted blankets on children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or autism have found either some positive associations or no associations with better sleep or reduced symptoms.


    "A 'grounded feeling' due to the use of weighted blankets may be attributed to the psychoanalytic 'holding environment' theory, which states that touch is a basic need that provides calming and comfort," Abbasi-Feinberg said via email. "Weighted blankets are designed to work similar to the way tight swaddling helps newborns feel snug and secure."


   



    Many, if not all, of the available studies on weighted blankets used participants who had a psychiatric, developmental or sleep disorder such as anxiety, depression, autism, ADHD or insomnia. That's likely because of "the fact that these segments of the population are the ones who could benefit most from touch- or sensory-related therapies," Abbasi-Feinberg said.


    However, given how weighted blankets might work to reduce cortisol levels, they could help to reduce general stress, too, Dasgupta said.


   



    People have shared their fondness for weighted blankets in studies and online, but people with the same psychiatric disorders may not have the same relaxing experiences with weighted blankets. One person in the follow-up phase of the 2020 study discontinued their participation due to feelings of anxiety when using the blanket. People who are claustrophobic may also not fare well. More studies on factors that make individuals more or less helped by weighted blankets are needed, Dasgupta added.


   



    A weighted blanket's calming abilities may help to regulate breathing, but some health professionals are hesitant to recommend weighted blankets to people with obstructive sleep apnea, asthma or other respiratory conditions. "You'd have to be pretty brittle and pretty sick if a blanket's going to stop your breathing," Dasgupta said. But if you're not sure, he added, be careful and talk to your pulmonologist first.


    Children should be assessed by occupational therapists or pediatricians before they try sherpa blanket, as many weighted blankets haven't been tested for the effectiveness and safety for children.


    "Weighted blankets shouldn't be used for toddlers under 2 years old, as it may increase the risk of suffocation," Abbasi-Feinberg said. "It's important for parents to always consult their pediatrician before trying a weighted blanket."


    Dogs sometimes benefit from pressure-applying garments during storms or other anxiety-inducing events, but weighted blankets can be dangerous for pets, said Dr. Douglas Kratt, president of the American Veterinary Medical Association.


   



    If you're looking for a weighted blanket, there are multiple options in terms of weight, materials and size. A blanket that weighs 7% to 12% of your body weight is typically the range to choose from, but that may depend on personal preference. "Some individuals might want a heavier weight to feel a sense of 'hugging' and calmness, while others might want something lighter," Abbasi-Feinberg said.


   



    And there are weighted blankets for year-round use, she added — some are made with a higher proportion of fabric layers made from cotton, which is lighter than other materials and allows air to pass through its fibers, therefore better managing your body temperature.


    Dasgupta thinks of sleep as a puzzle, and sometimes people with insomnia or mental disorders are missing some of the pieces needed for great sleep, but "no one really knows what puzzle pieces are missing."


    Weighted blankets could help, but they're not a cure-all — a healthy sleep routine is still necessary for getting enough of both sleep time and the deeper stages that leave you refreshed. If you think that a weighted blanket could be your missing puzzle piece, "it's worth a try," Dasgupta said. The downside is that these blankets can be pricey.


    During the pandemic, "sleep really took a hit" when it comes to insomnia, altered circadian rhythm and nightmares, Dasgupta said. "A weighted blanket is something that might have a role during this pandemic. ... That sense of the basic need to be touched and hugged could actually provide some comfort and security. Maybe that's why some people benefit from a weighted blanket."

Environmental impacts of wooden, plastic, and wood-polymer composite pallet: a life cycle assessment approach

    Environmental impacts of wooden, plastic, and wood-polymer composite pallet: a life cycle assessment approach


    Waste recycling is one of the essential tools for the European Union’s transition towards a circular economy. One of the possibilities for recycling wood and plastic waste is to utilise it to produce composite product. This study analyses the environmental impacts of producing composite pallets made of wood and plastic waste from construction and demolition activities in Finland. It also compares these impacts with conventional wooden and plastic pallets made of virgin materials.


   



    Methods


    Two different life cycle assessment methods were used: attributional life cycle assessment and consequential life cycle assessment. In both of the life cycle assessment studies, 1000 trips were considered as the functional unit. Furthermore, end-of-life allocation formula such as 0:100 with a credit system had been used in this study. This study also used sensitivity analysis and normalisation calculation to determine the best performing pallet.


   



    Result and discussion


    In the attributional cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment, wood-polymer composite pallets had the lowest environmental impact in abiotic depletion potential (fossil), acidification potential, eutrophication potential, global warming potential (including biogenic carbon), global warming potential (including biogenic carbon) with indirect land-use change, and ozone depletion potential. In contrast, wooden pallets showed the lowest impact on global warming potential (excluding biogenic carbon). In the consequential life cycle assessment, wood-polymer composite pallets showed the best environmental impact in all impact categories. In both attributional and consequential life cycle assessments, plastic pallet had the maximum impact. The sensitivity analysis and normalisation calculation showed that wood-polymer composite pallets can be a better choice over plastic and wooden pallet.


   



    Conclusions


    The overall results of the pallets depends on the methodological approach of the LCA. However, it can be concluded that the wood-polymer composite pallet can be a better choice over the plastic pallet and, in most cases, over the wooden pallet. This study will be of use to the pallet industry and relevant stakeholders.


   



    Pallets are used for storing, protecting, and transporting freight. They are the most common base for handling and moving the unit load, carried by materials handling units, such as forklifts. The pallet market is growing due to the rising standard of goods transportation, the adoption of modern material handling units in different industries, and market demand for palletised goods (McCrea 2016). It was estimated that the global pallet market reached 6.87 billion units in 2018 (Nichols 2020). More than 600 million European Pallets Association (EPAL) approved pallets are available to the global logistics industry. In 2019, 123 million wooden EPAL pallets and other carriers were produced, which is 1.2 million more compared to 2018 (EPAL 2020).


   



    The global pallet market can be classified based on materials, sizes, and management strategies (Deviatkin et al. 2019). Among various segments of pallets, wooden pallets dominate the market share, followed by plastic pallets (Leblanc 2020). Wooden pallets are inexpensive and can easily be manufactured and repaired compared to rackable plastic pallets. One of the most significant downsides of wooden pallets is the cost to forests (Retallack 2019). Furthermore, wooden pallets are heavier than plastic pallets, imposing an environmental burden on freight shipment. Even though plastic pallets are lighter than wooden pallets, plastic pallets’ production is an energy-intensive process. In addition, repairing plastic pallets is impossible because the materials have to be melted down and remoulded in the plastic pallet repairing process.


   



    Waste recycling is one of the pathways taken by the European Union to move towards a circular economy, as highlighted in the circular economy action plan (European Commission 2020). The central idea of a circular economy is to minimise the consumption of virgin materials, which means that an item that can be recycled should not be landfilled or incinerated. The EU is planning to recycle 50% plastic and 25% wood waste by 2025, which will increase to 55% for plastic and 30% for wood by 2030 (European Commission, 2018). By following the EU’s target, Finland’s objective is to fortify its role as a pioneer in the circular economy by implementing the strategic programme for circular economy (Ministry of Employment and the Economy 2021). The transition to a circular economy is essential for Finland to strengthen its export-driven economy with minimum environmental impact.


   



    The environmental benefits of recycled-based plastic products are well known and quantifiable (WRAP 2019). Also, materials made from wood waste can deliver low carbon-based products with less pressure on forests (WWF 2016). One of the possibilities for reducing the environmental burden of plastic and wood waste is to utilise these wastes for wood-polymer composite (WPC) products, such as WPC pallets. However, analysing the environmental performance of WPC pallets requires a complete life cycle analysis. Furthermore, it is important to consider that different materials have different life expectancies, reuse capabilities, and recyclability.


   



    According to International Organization for Standardization (ISO), life cycle assessment (LCA) is one of the environmental management techniques that “addresses the environmental aspects and potential environmental impacts throughout a product’s life cycle from raw material acquisition through production, use, end-of-life treatment, recycling, and final disposal” (EN ISO 14040:2006; EN ISO 14044:2006). Several LCA studies have been conducted on pallets focusing on pallet manufacturing, management strategies and supply chains, repair intensity, and pallets manufactured from various materials, such as wood, virgin plastic, cardboard, and waste plastic. Gasol et al. (2008) conducted an LCA study to compare the environmental performance of wooden pallets with high reuse intensity and low reuse intensity in the European context, and with the findings showing that due to transportation, high reuse intensity pallets have more adverse impacts on climate change than low reuse intensity pallets. Bengtsson and Logie (2015) performed an LCA comparing one-way wooden pallets, disposable compressed cardboard pallets, pooled softwood pallets, and plastic stackable pallets in Australia and China. The study results pointed out that pooled softwood pallets have the minimum environmental impact among all types of studied pallets. Tornese et al. (2018) examined pallets’ economic and climate change impacts, demonstrating that manufacturing a pallet causes more damage to the environment than repairing a pallet. The study also identified that the cross-docking system has equivalent emissions as the take-back system due to higher transportation distance. Almeida and Bengtsson (2017) compared the LCA of waste plastic-based pallets with wooden pallets and virgin plastic-based pallets and demonstrated that plastic waste-derived pallets outperform all other alternatives. Franklin Associates (2007) compared the environmental impacts of pooled pallets versus non-pooled pallets. The study indicated that pooled pallets have less of an environmental burden than non-pooled pallets. Ko?í (2019) studied the environmental impact of wooden pallets, primary plastic pallets, and secondary plastic pallets. The study found that wooden pallets have a better environmental impact than primary and secondary plastic pallets if energy recovery occurs. Furthermore, the study also showed that the weight of the pallet plays a significant role on its total environmental impact.


   



    The authors of previously conducted LCA studies analysed various pallets, making their cross-comparison a difficult task. Previous literature, including the above mentioned studies, have conducted LCA from an attributional point of view and excluded consequential LCA, which is thought to be an important method for identifying the changes in the system as a consequence of using a particular pallet. It is important to investigate the differences in the results, conclusions, and suitability of attributional and consequential LCA for cases where waste recycling is included. Furthermore, all the former studies assumed that various pallets perform equally well during their life cycle. None of the studies considered that pallets made with different materials have different life expectancies, repairing times, and recycling rates. In addition, end-of-life (EoL) is an integral part of the cradle to grave LCA. The methodological difference of the EoL allocation might have a significant impact on the overall result of LCA. It is found that the allocation of the environmental burdens of the EoL of the pallets was absent in the studies as mentioned earlier.


   



    The goal of this LCA study was to calculate and assess the environmental impacts of manufacturing, utilising, and disposal of pallets made of different materials. Both attributional LCA (ALCA) and consequential LCA (CLCA) methods were used in the study. An ALCA investigates the environmental impact of the physical flows to and from a product’s life cycle and its subsystems (Ekvall et al. 2016). In contrast, consequential LCA investigates the environmental impacts of the product system and the systems linked to it that are expected to change for production, consumption, and disposal of the product (Ekvall et al. 2016). Despite the ISO 14040/44 standards not explicitly distinguishing between the two types of LCAs, there is a clear difference in the definition of the scope for those assessments, as described below. The study results are intended to guide the selection of materials for the production of pallets.


   



    Scope of the ALCA study


    The attributional LCA follows the cradle-to-grave approach, meaning that the product system includes the processes starting with the provision of raw materials from the environment in the form of elementary flows, i.e. the flows created by nature, through the use of the pallets and ending with their disposal and with the release of emissions into air and water, and to the generation of waste.


   



    The system boundary of the ALCA comparing the impacts of the pallet’s production, use, and EoL is shown in Fig. 1. The modelling started with producing the raw materials and the energy generation for the pallets, such as wood harvest, timber production, and plastic production. It should be noted that the system boundary for WPC starteds from the collection of waste. Once the materials are produced and delivered to the production facilities, the pallets are manufactured. Nails are used to secure the parts of the wooden pallets, whereas plastic and WPC pallets are compressed into the required shape and do not require any fixing elements. The pallets are then delivered to a pallet pooling company, which operates by delivering the produced pallets to customers who can use them for their own purposes. After which, the pooling company collects the pallets and repairs them in the case of wooden pallets, if needed. After being used, the pallets are crushed for incineration. In the case of wooden pallets, ferrous metals are separated before incineration. By incinerating wooden, plastic and WPC pallets’ waste, energy is substituted. Nevertheless, materials are also substituted by separated ferrous metals from wooden pallets.


   



    EoL allocation


    There are no strict or specific requirements for modelling the EoL in LCA, and several allocation methods exist, such as 0:100 approach, 100:0 approach, 100:100 approach, 50:50 approach, etc. (Allacker et al. 2017). 0:100 EoL method can be conducted in two different ways, such as 0:100 with no credit for avoiding virgin materials and 0:100 with credit for avoiding virgin materials (Allacker et al. 2017). The system boundary of the study ends at the recovery of energy and material from the EoL phase. Therefore, in this study, the 0:100 EoL method with credit system had been used.


   



    In the CLCA, the correct way of modelling environmental impact is to use marginal production technology data for the substituted product. Marginal production technologies are those technologies that are changed by the small changes in demand (Weidema et al. 1999). It was found from this study that a significant amount of heat and electricity substitution was impacted when wood and plastic waste were not incinerated but used for WPC pallet production. In this case, marginal heat and electricity were used in the modelling of CLCA. Biomass will be the prime heat production source in Finland by 2030 (Ministry of Employment and the Economy 2017), and wind and solar power will provide the maximum share of electricity by 2030 (SKM Market Predictor 2019). Therefore, the biomass-based heat source was selected as the marginal heat source and wind, and solar-power-sourced electricity was selected as the marginal electricity source in CLCA modelling. The more detailed information on the selection of marginal heat and electricity is presented in the supplementary materials.


   



    Selection of the pallets


    A great variety of pallets exists, as dictated by the specific requirements of customers. However, this study exclusively focused on pooled pallets, with the dimension of 1200 mm?×?800 mm, made of either wood, plastic, or WPC. The pallets with the above-specified dimension are widely known as EUR pallets and are the most widely used type of pallets in Europe (EPAL 2019).


   



    Table 1 specifies the key parameters of the studied pallets in their baseline scenario. Wooden pallets are made of virgin wood, which is a mixture of softwood and hardwood as specific to Finnish conditions. The studied wooden pallets were block-type pallets, which are commonly used in Europe. Based on the review of LCA studies of wooden and lightweight plastic pallet by Deviatkin et al. (2019), the expected lifetime of the wooden pallets is 20 cycles, yet the number ranged between 5 and 30 cycles in most of the publications reviewed. The repair need of 7 cycles was estimated based on the mass of produced EUR pallets in Finland (3.2?×?103 kg), alongside with repaired (25?×?103 kg) and reused (167?×?103 kg). The expert views from a Finnish pallet pooling company suggested that the expected lifetime of the wooden pallets is somewhat higher, whereas the repair need for the pallets occurs on average after every 12 cycles. The variations in the expected lifetime of the pallets were examined in the scenario analysis of this study. It was assumed that, at the EoL, 90% of wooden pallets are incinerated, whereas 10% are used as a bulking agent in composting facilities.


   



    The plastic and WPC pallets are identical in structure and production method. Plastic pallets are manufactured using injection moulding, whereas WPC pallets are produced by extrusion followed by a compression moulding process. Both pallets are made to allow their nesting, thus saving the space occupied by the pallets. The exact height occupied by wooden stackable pallets can fit 1.7 times more plastic or WPC pallets. According to the literature on plastic pallets, plastic pallets are more durable than wooden pallets (Deviatkin et al. 2019). The expected lifetime of Double Sided Plastic Pallets could be 66 cycles, whereas the lifetime ranges from 50–100 in most of the studies reviewed (Deviatkin et al. 2019). In this study, the lifetime of plastic pallets was considered to be 66 cycles by following the review study conducted by Deviatkin et al. (2019). The WPC pallets were assumed to be of comparable properties as plastic pallets in these terms. Plastic and WPC pallets are suitable for demanding applications, such as those with expected exposure to water, or specific industrial demands, like those of the pharmaceutical industry. Such features of plastic and WPC pallets are, however, not considered in this study. Once damaged, neither plastic nor WPC pallets can be repaired. 

The Science of LED Grow Lights for Your Indoor Garden

    The Science of LED Grow Lights for Your Indoor Garden


    Indoor Gardening isn’t exactly a new thing, but LED’s are changing the way we light our indoor gardens.  LED lights are more efficient than traditional fluorescent and incandescent lights.  That’s because LED lights convert nearly all of their energy (95%) into light, while other lights turn a significant amount of energy into heat.  But, there’s another very important reason that LED’s are more efficient when it comes to growing plants.  With LED lights, we have the rather unique ability to customize the type of light that is emitted, and that means we’re not wasting energy to create light that doesn’t help our plants grow.  At the end of this article, you’ll understand the science behind why spyder grow light series come in many different colors, as well as why some LED grow lights cost so much more than others. 


   



    Plants Only Use the Visible Light Spectrum for Photosynthesis


   



    It’s important to know that plants only use visible light (the colors of light that we see every day) for photosynthesis. However, as the chart below demonstrates, the complete spectrum of light is far greater than just the visible light spectrum.  On the outer edge of the visible light spectrum is Ultraviolet (UV) light and Infrared Radiation (IR).  UV light is the invisible light emitted by the sun and other sources that will cause sunburns when we don’t wear sunblock.  IR light can only be seen with special equipment, like night-vision goggles.  Even further out from the visible light spectrum are light waves that we don’t traditionally think of as light.  These include X rays, Microwaves and even Radio Waves.


   



    One of the most important things to understand is that scientists have demonstrated over and over again that plants only absorb visible light for photosynthesis.  Plants do react to other forms of light like UV, but that reaction is typically negative.  I’m told that marijuana growers actually use UV light to induce the production of psychoactive chemicals like THC, which seem to be produced in part as a defense mechanism against the damaging effects of UV light to the plant.


   



    What is PAR?


   



    PAR stands for “photosynthetically available radiation.”  PAR is made up only of visible light, because this is the only light that plants use for photosynthesis.


   



    For decades, many indoor growers have used Lumens to measure a grow light’s efficacy, but the industry is getting smarter and turning to PAR.  Lumens are used to measure the brightness of a lamp to the human eye.  But plants and people see light differently.  Humans see yellow and green more brightly than other colors.  Therefore, yellow and green lamps may have higher Lumen values than red and blue lights that put out just as much actual light, and which plants are likely to respond better to.


   



    PAR measures all light from the visible light spectrum equally, and does not measure light outside of the visible light spectrum, which does not help the plant photosynthesis.  So, for plants, the PAR value of a light is currently the best basic measurement of a grow light’s brightness.  Accurate PAR meters are quite expensive and generally cost $500 or more.  Inaccurate PAR meters can be purchased for much less, but there’s really no point to owning an inaccurate PAR meter. 


   



    The best way to get PAR values for your 400W LED grow light, assuming you don’t want to purchase your own PAR meter, is to check with your reputable grow light manufacturer or provider for the PAR rating of their lights. 


   



    How Much PAR do My Plants Need to Grow?


   



    The amount of PAR your plants require depends on what you are growing, as well as how far away from your plants the light is.  Generally speaking, leafy greens like lettuce only need a PAR value of ~200, whereas tomatoes and other plants that flower and produce fruit require 400-500 or more PAR.  Unless you place your 600W LED grow light right on top of your produce, you will need an even higher PAR rating from your grow light, to take into account the distance between your plant and the light source.


   



    In the example below, you can see a very powerful grow light that puts out nearly 1,900 PAR (measured in umol) 8 inches from the source.  Very few lights put out this much PAR, and they are typically quite expensive.  This light will emit 1,900 umol every second.  But at 23 inches from the source, the strength of the light is reduced to 890 umol.  The PAR value is reduced further and further as you get further from the light source.  When we get to 6 feet away from the light source, our PAR value is down to ~100umol, which means we would have trouble growing even lettuce well.  So, always make sure you understand not just the PAR emitted from the light, but that every 8 inches or so away from your light, the PAR value will be reduced by ? or more.


   



    There are many inexpensive grow lights on the market that make big claims, but they will ultimately leave their owners disappointed.  This issue is especially rampant on the internet.  Remember to check the PAR value of any light you purchase.  Also, remember to take into account how far your light will be from your plant to ensure there is enough photosynthetically available radiation (PAR) for your plant to flourish.


   



    Leafy Greens require 200 PAR for proper growth


    Tomatoes, cucumbers and other flowering/fruiting vegetables require 400-500 PAR


    Fruiting Trees should be given 600 PAR or more


    What is the Temperature of Light I Should Use?


   



    Interestingly, ‘Kelvin temperature’ is the metric used to describe the visual color that a light emits.  As you can see in the chart below, ‘warmer’ light temperatures that have a red color have a lower Kelvin rating.  On the other end of the spectrum are ‘cooler’ temperature lights which have a blue color and higher Kelvin rating.


   



    Different temperatures of light have different impacts on plants.  Generally, higher temperatures (blue) light encourages photosynthesis which leads to bushy plants that don’t feel inclined to elongate and reach for more light.  This is great if you want to grow in a compact space.  Lower temperature (red) light reduces photosynthesis and signals to plants that that it’s time to flower and produce fruit.  Plants put under a red light will also be more inclined to stretch and grow taller, as opposed to growing bushier and more compact.


   



    IGWorks focusses on providing full spectrum lights with a natural color temperature of between 4500K-6500K as these are most pleasing to the eye.  They also allow plants to grow bushy and compact, without hindering the ability of plants to flower and fruit. 


   



    What Color of Light Should I Use?


   



    LED lights can come in almost any color.  Plants respond most to red and blue light.  Interestingly, plants generally respond less well to green light.  In fact, the reason that plants appear to be green is that they tend to reflect green light, while they absorb other parts of the light spectrum more readily.  This is why a large scale or industrial grower of plants will often use a combination of red and blue lights to photosynthesize their plants.  They don’t want to waste electricity producing green and even yellow light, which plants use less effectively. 


   



    However, for those of us growing produce in our living spaces, it’s probably worth the extra pennies it costs to produce a nice full-spectrum color that will be more natural and pleasing to the eyes.  Full-spectrum grow lights will often come with a chart, which shows the distribution of blue, green, yellow and red light that is emitted.  See the example below


   



    Choosing the right grow light spectrum for your commercial operation can be a challenge. Many 800W LED grow light suppliers have conflicting information on the topic due to bad marketing or simply a lack of knowledge in plant and light research.


   



    In this article, our light spectrum experts break down what light spectrum is, how plants respond to light, and how light spectrum influences plant growth.


   



    What is Grow Light Spectrum?


    Light spectrum is the range of wavelengths produced by a light source. When discussing light spectrum, the term ‘light’ refers to the visible wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that humans can see from 380–740 nanometers (nm). Ultraviolet (100–400 nm), far-red (700–850 nm), and infra-red (700–106 nm) wavelengths are referred to as radiation.


   



    As growers, we’re most interested in the wavelengths that are relevant to plants.  Plants detect wavelengths that include ultraviolet radiation (260–380 nm) and the visible portion of the spectrum (380–740 nm) which includes PAR (400–700 nm), and far-red radiation (700–850 nm).


   



    When considering light spectrum for horticultural applications, greenhouse and indoor environments will differ.  With indoor environments your grow light’s spectrum will account for the total light spectrum that your crop receives.  Whereas in a greenhouse you must consider that your plants are receiving a combination of folding grow light series and solar spectrum.


   



    Either way, the amount of each waveband that your crop receives will have significant effects on growth.  Let’s learn more about how this works.


   



    Plants use light for photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other organisms convert light energy into chemical energy. Photomorphogenesis refers to how plants modify their growth in response to light spectrum.


   



    One example of photomorphogenesis is a plant bending toward a light source. Light also affects plants’ developmental stages, such as germination and flowering.


   



    The light that plants predominately use for photosynthesis ranges from 400–700 nm. This range is referred to as Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) and includes red, blue and green wavebands.


   



    Photomorphogenesis occurs in a wider range from approximately 260–780 nm and includes UV and far-red radiation.


   



    Although results are dependent on other factors, there are general rules of thumb that you can follow when using light spectrum to elicit different plant responses.


   



    Outlined below is an overview of how each waveband is used for horticultural purposes so that you can trial light spectrum strategies in your own growth environment and with your chosen crop varieties.


   



    Blue light has distinct effects on plant growth and flowering. In general, blue light can increase overall plant quality in many leafy green and ornamental crops.


   



    A minimal amount of blue light is required to sustain normal plant development.  In terms of adjustable spectrum lighting strategies, if we were to equate red light to the engine of your car, then blue light would be the steering wheel.


   



    When combined with other light spectrum wavebands, blue light promotes plant compactness, root development, and the production of secondary metabolites.   Blue light can be utilized  as a growth regulator, which can reduce your need for chemical plant growth regulators (PGRs). Blue light can also increase chlorophyll accumulation and stomatal opening (facilitating gas exchange), which can improve overall plant health.


   



    One example of blue light influencing secondary plant metabolite production is how blue wavebands promote anthocyanin development in leaves and flowers. Increased anthocyanin levels result in more pronounced color.


   



    Blue light also promotes other secondary metabolic compounds associated with improved flavor, aroma and taste. For example, blue light treatments have been shown to improve terpene retention in some varieties of cannabis.


   



    Higher intensities of blue light (>30 μmol·m-2·s-1) can inhibit or promote flowering in daylength-sensitive crops. Blue light does not regulate flowering at low light intensities (<30 μmol·m-2·s-1), so is safe to be applied at night to influence the other plant characteristics listed above


   



    Since chlorophyll does not absorb green light as readily as other wavelengths, many have written off the green waveband as being less important to plant growth. This lower chlorophyll absorption rate, compared to blue and red light, is what makes most plants appear green. Depending on the plant, leaves generally reflect 10-50% of green waveband photons.


   



    In contrast to assumptions, studies of green light in crop production have concluded that green light is important to photosynthesis, and especially in a plant’s lower leaves. Around 80% of green light transmits through chloroplasts, whereas leaves absorb approximately 90% and transmit less than 1% of red and blue light.


   



    So what does this all mean? When light is plentiful, chlorophyll reaches a saturation point and can no longer absorb red and blue light. Yet, green light can still excite electrons within chlorophyll molecules located deep within a leaf, or within chloroplasts lower in the plant’s canopy. And so, green light enhances photosynthetic efficiency—potentially increasing crop yields, during bright light conditions.


   



    Additionally, the ratio of green to blue and red wavelengths signals to the plant a leaf’s canopy position. This can induce morphological changes to maximize light absorption. Green light also plays a role in regulating stomatal aperture (opening and closing of plant pores that make gas exchange possible).


   



    Greenhouse applications require less supplemental green light since plants receive adequate green light from solar radiation.&nbsp; Indoor environments may benefit more from supplemental green light since no sunlight is present.

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Microfiber leather is an abbreviation of ultrafine fiber PU synthetic leather. It is a non-woven fabric made of three-dimensional structure network by carding acupuncture with microfiber staple fiber. After wet processing, PU resin impregnation, alkali reduction, and dermabrasion and polishing And other processes eventually make microfiber leather. It is made by adding ultra-fine fiber to PU polyurethane, which makes the toughness, air permeability and abrasion resistance further strengthened; it has extremely excellent abrasion resistance, excellent cold resistance, breathability, and aging resistance. Eco-friendly, Comprehensive performance beyond real leather. Widely used for automotive, garment, bags, sofa, shoes, boots, basketball, belt, jewellery box and so on. We are specialize in microfiber leather production manufacture.We provide the optimal leather options, the best leather substitute and best leather alternatives for automotive seat covers and interiors, furniture & sofa upholstery, footwear and shoes, bags, garments, gloves, balls, etc.

While synthetic leather were once considered not suitable for high quality shoes,  PU microfiber leather has changed how shoes are made.

Microfiber leather is designed to hold up against weather conditions and the wear and tear of walking and running over an extended period of time.

They can retain their form very well, and thus are usually very durable if cared for properly. They're also more water-resistant and lighter than real leather, making them great for long wear and outdoor activities.

We found this video, below, that tests how durable shoes made with suede microfiber leather are. Check it out!

Microfiber leather, or micro fiber leather, is the highest quality grade synthetic leather (faux leather or PU leather), a high-tech simulation of high-end leather material. WINIW Microfiber Leather is simulated the structure of natural leather, using sea-island superfine micro fiber (ultra-fine fiber bundle), and high-grade polyurethane resins as raw materials, using needle punched nonwoven technology of 3D structure, has a lot of similar characters as natural leather, however better physical & chemical performance, has been widely popular around the world. Because of superior performance, WINIW microfiber synthetic leather has been the best leather alternatives and the optimal leather substitute, material, best vegan leather and eco leather, can replace natural leather perfectly!

Compared to natural leather, microfiber synthetic leather has many excellent qualities, such as chemical resistance and physical and mechanical properties. However, preparation of microfiber synthetic leather with a high water vapor transmission rate (WVT), moisture absorption and wearing comfort property is still a challenge. In this study, we prepared thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)/sulfonated polysulfone (SPSf) electrospun nanofibers and applied them to a microfiber synthetic leather base (MSLB). The effects of TPU/SPSf nanofiber content on the structure and properties of the MSLB were investigated. The results indicated that the TPU/SPSf nanofibers with an average diameter of 0.12 µm were well distributed at all directions in the MSLB. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis showed four Tg peaks, further demonstrating the existence of TPU/SPSf nanofibers. With the increase of TPU/SPSf nanofiber content from 0 to 30 wt%, the contact angles decreased gradually from 111.64° to 67.07°, leading to 55.19% improvement in the WVT value (from 2868.96 to 4452.24 g/(m2•24 h)) and 26.25% improvement in the moisture absorption (from 628.70% to 793.75% mm/s). Simultaneously, when the nanofiber content was 30 wt%, the nanofibers tended to bundle and 6.79% decrement of air permeability was observed. Specifically, the softness of the MSLB was improved by 88.55%. Moreover, the thermal stability and the tear strength were also obviously enhanced. Consequently, this research provided a feasible and promising way to prepare a high-performance MSLB using TPU/SPSf nanofibers.

The difficulty in dyeing microfiber base filled with ordinary polyurethane presents a significant challenge in maintaining the uniformity and highly realistic appearance of the resulting products. In the present study, a type of acid-dyeable polyurethane (PU-MDEA; MDEA=N-methyldiethanolamine) was synthesized, and its chemical structure and dyeing properties were investigated. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis indicated that cationic groups were successfully incorporated into the PU-MDEA backbone via chain extension using MDEA. The amorphous nature of PU-MDEA was determined by differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, and polarizing optical microscopy. Owing to the strong binding between these cationic groups and acid dye, as well as the reduced resistance to dye penetration, PU-MDEA showed better dyeability toward the acid dyes studied herein when compared with the control sample (microfiber synthetic leather filled with ordinary polyurethane). The adsorption isotherm experiment revealed that the dyeing process conformed to the Langmuir model, thereby indicating that the acid dyes attached to PU-MDEA via strong ionic bonding rather than van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonding. Additionally, it was found that the wastewater resulting from the dyeing of the microfiber synthetic leather filled with PU-MDEA exhibited environmentally friendly characteristics when compared with that displayed by the control sample (microfiber synthetic leather filled with ordinary polyurethane). Thus, the current results show the potential of PU-MDEA, as a filler, in the manufacture of microfiber synthetic leather to achieve fast dyeing rate, high dye uptake, and good color fastness, thereby improving the uniformity and highly realistic appearance of the resulting products.
Bonded leather is called ‘leather’ because it incorporates scraps of leather remnants, which comprise between 10-20% of its content. The scraps of leather are made into a pulp and stuck to a fibre or paper backer which is then coated with polyurethane and embossed to give it the appearance of genuine leather.

The price of an article is an immediate indication as to whether you are buying genuine leather. At a glance, bonded leather may look like the real thing but it will feel thin to the touch and will lack the softness of real leather, it may also exude a chemical smell.

WHAT IS BONDED LEATHER MATCH?
This term refers to the ability of bonded leather manufacturers to replicate the appearance of real leather, although it is likely that the product may be dyed in a striking range of unnatural colours.

For most people this will be a choice dictated by the comparative low cost of the product; some may choose bonded leather because it can be regarded as environmentally friendly, in so much as it uses left overs and does not involve additional farming and, potentially, reduces landfill. The product is also easy to clean and is likely to come in a wide range of design options.

Bonded leather should be wiped with a clean damp cloth and wiped dry with a different cloth. Spilt liquids should be cleaned immediately but no detergents or abrasive cleaners should be used. Non-alkaline cleaners and non-detergent soaps can be used but the material should always be tested for colour fastness on a small unobtrusive area first.

HOW DURABLE IS BONDED LEATHER?
Bonded leather is not a durable product. Generally, furniture made from bonded leather is likely to peel and crack within two to five years.

WHAT CAUSES BONDED LEATHER TO PEEL AND CRACK? 
Bonded leather is a non-elastic material; therefore, it has a tendency to crack with use, strips of polyurethane and leather will then start to peel away from the backing.

WHY IS BONDED LEATHER BAD?
Compared with leather, bonded leather has a very short lifespan. It is prone to cracking and peeling and once it has deteriorated beyond a certain point it is impossible to repair. Although a bonded leather may be cheaper than real leather, it’s short life span means that in the long run the cost of replacing a bonded leather item can be more expensive. There is also the argument that this also makes it less environmentally friendly.

HOW TO REPAIR BONDED LEATHER  
There are repair kits on the market which enable you to make small repairs to bonded leather. The affected area must be sanded to remove any protruding bits of leather, a patch can then be dyed to match or the fabric under the peel can be dyed and sealed to stop further peeling. The resulting repair will be noticeable but will be an improvement.

HOW TO FIX BONDED LEATHER SCRATCHES  
First clean the area with a white cloth to ensure that no dye is transferred. Then mix a leather repair solution together with an appropriate tint. Add a small quantity of the mixture to the affected area and around the affected area. Then place leather grained paper, supplied with the kit, over the area and gently iron with a warm iron, this will transfer the pattern to the repair. Be careful to ensure that the iron is not too hot because it may discolour or damage the bonded leather. For minor scratches, it may be possible to affect a repair with the use of shoe polish. You should also check any new products on a small inconspicuous area of the leather item first.

Top Grain leather is the second highest grade quality of leather and is the lower part of the top layer of the hide. One removed it is sanded and refinished. It comes in two grades, aniline, which is natural soft leather which is vulnerable to stains and semi-aniline which has a protective coating. Top Grain leather is comprised of twelve to fourteen percent water and consequently it adjusts to body temperature: it is cool in summer and warm in winter. With bonded leather the reverse is the case.

BONDED LEATHER VERSUS REAL LEATHER 
Real Leather, also referred to as Genuine Leather is the third grade of leather, taken from the lower, thinner layer of the hide. The surface is then reworked to resemble a higher-grade leather. It is not as tough as Full grain leather or Top Grain leather but is considerably more durable than bonded leather.

BONDED LEATHER VERSUS FAUX LEATHER 
Faux leather, sometimes referred to as Pleather, contains no animal products and is made from polyurethane. It can be embossed with any texture and looks and feels like genuine leather. It is water resistant and easy to clean. Unlike bonded leather it does not crack or fade in sunlight, it is however, easy to tear or puncture. It is also considered less environmentally friendly due to the chemicals and toxins used in its production – although this varies depending on the exact process and materials used to produce it.

BONDED LEATHER VERSUS DURABLEND
Durablend is a low-cost leather alternative, similar to bonded leather and comprising of 57% polyurethane, 26% poly/cotton and 17% leather shavings. It is the trademark product of Ashley Furniture. Customer reviews suggest that it shares similar weaknesses with bonded leather in so much as it scratches easily and is prone to cracking.

BONDED LEATHER VERSUS VINYL 
Polyvinyl chloride, popularly known as Vinyl or PVC is a faux leather which has been produced since the 1940’s by chemical companies like DuPont. It is used for shoes, car interiors and upholstery. Not as breathable as bonded leather, skin tends to stick to its surface, which makes it unpleasant seating in hot weather, it is easy to clean and maintain. Like bonded leather it cracks with use and is easy to puncture.

BONDED LEATHER VERSUS MICROFIBER 
A much more sophisticated form of faux leather: polyurethane resin and ultra- fine microfiber leather for automotive are combined to replicate the microscopic structure of leather. The complexity of its construction mean that it is more expensive than other faux products but it does have a number of advantages over bonded leather. It doesn’t scratch or tear and is non-fading. It breathes like real leather but it also has ant -bacteria and anti-mildew properties. Unlike bonded leather it is completely odourless.

BONDED LEATHER VERSUS REXINE 
Rexine is the registered trademark of a British artificial leather which has been produced since the 1920’s. Essentially a cloth backing is coated with cellulose nitrate and embossed to produce the illusion of leather. Primarily used for car interiors this is now regarded as retro faux leather and as such is sort out by collectors.

BONDED LEATHER VERSUS BICAST
Bicast is constructed using a split leather backing to which a layer of polyurethane is applied. The surface is then embossed to give the appearance of leather. It shares many of the qualities of bonded leather: it has a consistent texture and is easy to clean and maintain but it doesn’t breathe like leather and it lacks strength and durability.

BONDED LEATHER VERSUS LEATHERETTE 
Leatherette is a plastic based synthetic leather. Unlike bonded leather it does not scratch and it does not fade in sunlight. Like most faux leather, it does not breathe and is unpleasant next to the skin. Although it might be the preferred choice of those who don’t like to use animal products, it is made from non- biodegradable, non-renewable materials and is therefore considered less environmentally friendly.

Cast iron pipes can fail in many modes which in general can be summarized into two categories: loss of strength due to the reduction of wall thickness of the pipes, and loss of toughness due to the stress concentration at the tips of cracks or defects. Even in one category there can be many mechanisms that cause failure. The strength failure can be caused by hoop stress or axial stress in the pipes. A review of recent research literature (Sadiq et al., 2004; Moglia et al., 2008; Yamini, 2009; Clair and Sinha, 2012) suggests that current research on pipe failures focuses more on loss of strength than loss of toughness. As was mentioned in Section 3.3.7(b), the literature review also revealed that in most reliability analyses for buried pipes, multifailure modes are rarely considered although in practice this is the reality. Therefore the aim of this section is to consider multifailure modes in reliability analysis and service life prediction for ductile iron pipe. Both loss of strength and toughness of the pipe are considered. A system reliability method is employed in calculating the probability of pipe failure over time, based on which the service life of the pipe can be estimated. Sensitivity analysis is also carried out to identify those factors that affect the pipe behavior most.

Buried pipes are not only subjected to mechanical actions (loads) but also environmental actions that cause the corrosion of pipes. Corrosion related defects would subsequently cause fracture of cast iron pipes. In the presence of corrosion pit, failure of a pipe can be attributed to two mechanisms: (i) the stresses in the pipe exceed the corresponding strength; or (ii) the stress intensity exceeds fracture toughness of the pipe. Based on these two failure modes, two limit state functions can be established as follows.

Steel pipe is manufactured by the pit, horizontal or centrifugal method. In the vertical pit method, a mold is made by ramming sand around a pattern and drying the mold in an oven. A core is inserted in the mold and molten iron is poured between the core and the mold. In the horizontal method, a machine is used to ram sand around horizontal molds that have core bars running through them. The molten iron is poured into the molds from multiple-lipped ladle designed to draw the iron from the bottom to eliminate the introduction of impurities. In the centrifugal method (Figure 3.4), sand-lined molds are used that are placed horizontally in centrifugal casting machines. While the mold revolves, an exact quantity of molten iron is introduced, which, by action of the speed of rotation, distributes itself on the walls of the mold to produce pipe within a few seconds.

Many cast iron pipes made towards the end of the nineteenth century are still in use; their walls were relatively thick and not always of uniform, ‘Spun’ grey iron pipes were formed by spinning in a mould and produced a denser iron with pipes of more uniform wall thickness; they comprise a large proportion of the distribution mains in many countries. Three classes of such pipes were available: B, C, and D for working pressures of 60, 90, and 120 m respectively; classes B and C were more widespread. Carbon is present in the iron matrix substantially in lamellar or flaky form; therefore, the pipes are brittle and relatively weak in tension and liable to fracture. The manufacture of grey iron pipes has been discontinued in most countries, except for the production of non-pressure drainage pipes.

Since cast iron pipes are deteriorating rapidly and causing so many maintenance problems (Section 4.3.2), the distribution network is currently undergoing an extensive replacement scheme with old, leaking and corroded cast iron pipes being replaced by MDPE and uPVC. These new plastic pipe materials are thought to support fewer bacteria than the old hubless cast iron pipe. Their surface is smoother and therefore the surface area smaller and they are not subject to corrosion or biodeterioration.

In addition, the effectiveness of a disinfectant is greatly influenced by the pipe material. Biofilms grown on copper or PVC pipe surfaces were inactivated by a 1 mg/l dose of free chlorine or monochloramine. However, on iron pipes 3-4 mg/l of chlorine or monochloramine was ineffective in controlling the biofilm (LeChevallier et al., 1990) because, as discussed before, the chlorine will preferentially react with the iron surface (LeChevallier et al., 1993). It appears that the option of changing pipe materials to ones with lower biofilm-forming potentials would reduce the biofilm problem.

Many cast iron pipes made towards the end of the 19th century are still in use; their walls were relatively thick and not always of uniform, ‘Spun’ grey iron pipes were formed by spinning in a mould and produced a denser iron with pipes of more uniform wall thickness; they comprise a large proportion of the distribution mains in many countries. Three classes of such pipes were available in the UK: B, C and D for working pressures of 60, 90 and 120 m, respectively; classes B and C were more widespread. Carbon is present in the iron matrix substantially in lamellar or flaky form; therefore, the pipes are brittle and relatively weak in tension and liable to fracture. The manufacture of grey iron pipes has been discontinued in most countries, except for the production of non-pressure drainage pipes.

Lead joint (a) is accomplished by melting and pouring lead around the spigot in the bell end of the pipe. After the lead has cooled to the temperature of the pipe, the joint is caulked using pneumatic or hand tools until thoroughly compacted with the caulking material and made water tight.

Cement joint (b) is started at the bottom with the cement mixture, and the mixture then caulked. Pipe with cement joints must not be filled with water until after 12 h has elapsed.

Roll-on joint © requires a round rubber gasket that is slipped over the spigot before it is pushed in the bell. Braided jute is tamped behind the gasket, after which the remaining space is filled with a bituminous compound.

Push-on gasket joint (d) is made by seating a circular rubber gasket inside the contour of the socket bell. The slightly tapered pipe end permits the gasket to fit over the internal bead in the socket. A special lever action tool, manually operated, then allows the bell and spigot past the gasket, which is thereby compressed as it makes contact with the bottom of the socket.

Mechanical joint and pipe joint should be thoroughly cleaned to remove oil, grit, and excess coating and then painted with a soap solution. Cast iron gland is then slipped on the spigot end with the lip extension toward the socket (or bell) end. The rubber gasket, also painted with the soap solution, is placed on the spigot end but with its thick end toward the gland. The entire section of the pipe is pushed forward to seat the spigot into the bell; the cast iron gland is moved into position for bolting.

The Putney gas explosion was a real wake-up call, and accelerated the replacement of old gray ductile iron pipe fittings by polymers such as medium-density polyethylene (MDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and unplasticized polyvinylchloride (UPVC). HDPE has a tensile strength of ≈20–37 MN m−2 (which is more than adequate for typical internal pressures). Most importantly, though, it has a Young’s modulus which is ≈150–300 times less than cast iron. This means that HDPE pipes can deflect under misalignments of the kind experienced in the Putney explosion without reaching the fracture stress. Even better, over a long time the polymer also creeps, which further dissipates the stresses caused by misalignment. Polymers are also very resistant to corrosion, so should last indefinitely in the ground.

But how are lengths of polymer pipe joined together? The following clip shows how:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=83PTUoFBq...re=related

The steps in the process are shown in Figure 27.11. First, the ends of the pipe to be joined are machined flat and parallel using a double-sided rotating disk planer. Then the ends are heated with an electric hotplate. Finally, the hot faces are pushed together using a hydraulic ram. The softened thermoplastics fuse together, making a high-strength leak-proof joint. This is a quick, reproducible method, which requires little skill on the part of the operator—in marked contrast to the lead-filled spigot-and-socket joints of the old cast iron system. Figures 27.12 and 27.13 show an alternative joining method, where one end of the pipe has an enlarged bore into which the mating pipe can be inserted. This overlapping joint can then be fixed and sealed with polymer adhesive. It would be hard to envisage any replacement materials so well adapted to this challenging environment than thermoplastics.

The earliest oil pipelines in the United States, laid in the 1860s, were typically constructed of 2-in cast-iron pipe threaded and screwed together in short segments. Oil was propelled through the pipeline using steam-driven, single cylinder pumps, or by gravity feed. These early pipelines, seldom more than 15 mi in length, were prone to bursting, thread stripping at the pipe joints, and frequent pump breakdowns mainly due to the percussive strain on the lines caused by each stroke of the pump which “resembled the report of a rifled gun.” Development of the four-cylinder Worthington pump revolutionized the transportation of petroleum by pipeline with its constant flow and uniform pressure (The Engineering and Building Record, 1890; Scientific American, 1892; Herrick, 1949; Williamson and Daum, 1959).

By the 1870s, a 2000-mi network of small-diameter gathering lines connected the oil-producing areas with regional refineries and storage points on the railroads and rivers where the oil could be shipped to refineries via railcars or ships and barges. Typical crude oil trunk lines were constructed of 18-ft sections of lap-welded wrought steel pipe fittings 5 or 6 in in diameter joined with tapered, threaded joints manufactured specifically for pipeline service. The pipe was generally buried 2 or 3 ft below the ground surface. Worthington-type pumps were used as the motive power for the lines, and the pumps were powered by steam generated by coal-fired boilers. Pump stations were spaced as needed to maintain the flow of oil over the terrain crossed by the lines. At the pump stations, oil was withdrawn from the lines and passed through riveted steel receiving tanks some of which were 90 ft in diameter and 30 ft high holding about 35,000 barrels (The Engineering and Building Record, 1890; Scientific American, 1892; Herrick, 1949). Diesel-powered pumps began to replace steam power around 1913–1914 (Williamson et al., 1963).

It was not until May 1879 that the Tidewater Pipe Company, Ltd. began operation of the first long-distance crude oil pipeline covering the 100 mi between Coryville and Williamsport, Pennsylvania, to connect with the Reading Railroad. The line was constructed of 6-in wrought-iron pipe laid on the surface of the ground (except when crossing cultivated land) and relied on only two pumping stations, one at Coryville and the other near Coudersport. The expansion of the oil under the hot summer sun caused the line to shift as much as 15–20 ft from its intended position, knocking over telegraph poles and small trees, but no serious breaks occurred. In the spring of 1880, Tidewater buried the entire line (Williamson and Daum, 1959).

The success of the Tidewater pipeline set the pattern for the construction of other long-distance crude oil “trunk” lines which sprang up in the early 1880s connecting the oil regions of Pennsylvania with refining centers in Cleveland, Pittsburg, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Bayonne, and New York City (Williamson and Daum, 1959).

By 1905, the oil fields in the Oil Regions of Appalachia stretching from Wellsville, New York, through western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, eastern Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee were becoming depleted. The new oil fields discovered during the early 1900s in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, southeastern Kansas, northeastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas were quickly connected by trunk lines to the eastern refining centers as well as the new western refineries in Lima, Ohio; Whiting, Indiana; Sugar Creek, Missouri; and Neodesha, Kansas (Johnson, 1967).

The proximity of the prolific Spindle Top Field to the Gulf coast made the area around Houston, Port Arthur and Beaumont, Texas, and Baton Rouge, Louisiana into a petroleum refining center. Regional pipelines were built to carry crude oil the relatively short distances to the Gulf coast refineries (Johnson, 1967). The oil tanker ships operating from the Gulf coast ports competed for and obtained control of most of the long-distance oil transport to the refineries and markets along the eastern seaboard by the mid-1920s (Williamson et al., 1963; Johnson, 1967).

Until the 1930s, when large-diameter steel pipe was in widespread use, the carrying capacity of oil pipelines was increased by laying an additional line or lines alongside the original pipe within the same right-of-way. This practice was known as “looping.” The carrying capacity of 8-in lines was about 20,000 barrels per day, while 12-in lines handled 60,000 barrels per day. Since the largest refineries operating in that era were designed to handle crude at the rate of approximately 80,000–100,000 barrels per day, the carrying capacity of the pipelines built by a refiner were carefully gauged to support the refinery with little excess capacity to offer to others (Wolbert, 1979; Willson, 1925).

By 1941, just prior to the United States’ entry into World War II, there were about 127,000 mi of oil pipeline in the United States composed of about 63,000 mi of crude oil trunk lines, about 9000 mi of refined product lines, and about 55,000 mi of crude gathering lines (Frey and Ide, 1946). From February through May 1942, 50 oil tankers serving the Atlantic seaboard were sunk by German submarines. The continuing attrition of the tanker fleet by enemy action and the diversion of tankers to serve military operations abroad caused a tremendous increase in the use of pipelines to transport both crude oil and refined products to the east coast which consumed about 40% of the petroleum produced in the United States. In June 1941, before the Pearl Harbor attack, pipelines delivered about 2% of the petroleum needed by the east coast; by April 1945, pipelines carried 40% of this critical supply (Frey and Ide, 1946).

The wartime expansion of the pipeline network added more than 11,000 mi of trunk and gathering lines, repurposed over 3000 mi of existing pipelines in new locations and reversed the direction of flow of more than 3000 mi of other lines (Frey and Ide, 1946). One of the pipelines converted from products delivery and reversed in flow direction to convey crude oil to east coast refineries during the war was the Tuscarora pipeline. After the war, it was reconverted and its direction of flow was again reversed to convey gasoline from the coastal refineries to the interior (Johnson, 1967).

Noteworthy wartime pipelines owned by the federal government were the “Big Inch” crude oil line, the largest pipeline in the world at that time measuring 24 in in diameter for much of its 1254 mi length; and the “Little Big Inch,” the longest refined products pipeline in the world at 1475 mi of 20-in diameter pipeline (Frey and Ide, 1946). Only during World War II did the federal government finance oil pipeline construction (Johnson, 1967).

With the proven success of long, large-diameter crude and refined products pipelines during World War II, the rapid growth in demand for petroleum products in the post-World War II era prompted a great expansion in construction of large pipelines. The number of refined products pipelines increased about 78% from 9000 mi in 1944 to 16,000 mi in 1950. Crude oil trunk lines expanded from about 63,000 mi in 1941 to about 65,000 mi 1950. The postwar increase in the diameter of the crude oil trunk lines, and therefore their carrying capacity, far outweighed the relatively modest increase in mileage (Johnson, 1967) (Table 24.1).

When I was younger, wine came in a glass bottle, and—outside of a few value-priced boxed options—that was that. But now, quality wine comes in all sorts of packaging: boxes, cans, pouches, even slim wine bottles that can fit through a mail slot. Of course, the bottle is still king—but even that classic container isn’t beyond innovation. The British company Frugalpac has just launched a standard-sized wine bottle made mostly out of recycled paper.

The Frugal Bottle is a 750 milliliter bottle “made from 94 percent recycled paperboard with a food-grade liner to hold the wine or spirit,” according to Frugalpac. Not only is it “comparable in cost to a labelled glass bottle,” but it can also “be refrigerated and keeps the liquid cooler for longer.”

Naturally, the company offers an environmental pitch, as well. “Our mission is to design, develop and supply sustainable packaging. The Frugal Bottle is up to five times lighter than a glass bottle, has a carbon footprint up to six times lower and is easy to recycle again,” explained Frugalpac chief executive Malcolm Waugh. “We’ve had fantastic feedback from people who’ve trialed the Frugal Bottle. As well as the superior environmental benefits, it looks and feels like no other bottle you have ever seen.”

Digging into the specifics, a Frugal Bottle weighs about 3 ounces, whereas burgundy bottles can weigh about a pound. Additionally, Frugalpac says that beyond offering a carbon footprint that is 84 percent lower than a glass bottle, it’s also “more than a third less than a bottle made from 100 paper recycled plastic,” with a “water footprint is also at least four times lower than glass.” And, yes, the paper bottle is easy to recycle—because the liner inside is removable: “Simply separate the plastic food-grade liner from the paper bottle and put them in your respective recycling bins.”

The new Frugal Bottle has debuted with Italy’s Cantina Goccia who is using it for their 2017 3Q wine—a Sangiovese retailing in the UK for about $16. On top of its other benefits, this first bottle shows off another intriguing trait: The artwork can easily cover the entire surface.

“When some of our top hotel customers saw samples of our paper wine bottle, there was no hesitation in their minds that this type of bottle would be well received in their dining rooms,” said Cantina Goccia owner Ceri Parke. “It’s much lighter than glass, easier to transport and friendlier to the planet."

As of right now, Frugal Bottle doesn’t appear slated to arrive in the United States in the near future, but that could easily change. Frugalpac is currently taking orders for the machines used to produce the bottles, with delivery planned for next year—and though right now interest is primarily in the U.K. and Europe, nothing seems to preclude American companies from getting on board.

“Frugalpac’s business model is to supply Frugal Bottle machines for wine producers or packaging companies to manufacture the bordeaux bottles on their site, cutting carbon emissions even further,” Waugh added. “Materials can be purchased locally through existing paperboard printers to give maximum freedom of design and the best commercial offering.”

Naturally, the company offers an environmental pitch, as well. “Our mission is to design, develop and supply sustainable packaging. The Frugal Bottle is up to five times lighter than a glass bottle, has a carbon footprint up to six times lower and is easy to recycle again,” explained Frugalpac chief executive Malcolm Waugh. “We’ve had fantastic feedback from people who’ve trialed the Frugal Bottle. As well as the superior environmental benefits, it looks and feels like no other bottle you have ever seen.”

Digging into the specifics, a Frugal Bottle weighs about 3 ounces, whereas ice wine bottles can weigh about a pound. Additionally, Frugalpac says that beyond offering a carbon footprint that is 84 percent lower than a glass bottle, it’s also “more than a third less than a bottle made from 100 paper recycled plastic,” with a “water footprint is also at least four times lower than glass.” And, yes, the paper bottle is easy to recycle—because the liner inside is removable: “Simply separate the plastic food-grade liner from the paper bottle and put them in your respective recycling bins.”

Shops in Scotland have become the first place in the UK to stock wine in paper bottles in a move which aims to reduce the carbon footprint associated with glass bottles.

Three Scottish off licences will sell the Italian wine in its new lightweight, recyclable container, which the manufacturers say has a carbon footprint up to six times (84 per cent) lower than a glass bottle and more than a third less than a bottle made from 100 per cent recycled plastic.

The 75cl bottle, manufactured by Ipswitch-based company Frugalpac is made from 94 per cent recycled paperboard and has gone on sale for the first time at Woodwinters Wine and Whiskies stores.

The wine is from Italian vineyard Cantina Goccia and is a blend of Sangiovese, Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes.

But the manufacturers said the bottle can also be used for spirits such as whisky, gin, vodka and rum, and has already sparked a interest in a drinks industry keen to cut their emissions and appeal to a new audience of consumers interested in sustainability.


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For many of us wine drinkers, our first conscious act towards saving the planet was to separate champagne bottles from the rest of our rubbish. It made us feel pretty good, even though most of us were — and continue to be — shockingly ignorant about what then happens to them.

Today, few really understand the relative merits of different forms of packaging for wine in terms of sustainability. And this is hardly surprising, since even those whose job it is to study such things admit that the whole subject is hugely complex and definitive statistics are extremely difficult to come by.

To the average consumer, a glass bottle may seem virtuous because they generally assume that it’s both recycled and recyclable. Hence when the European glass manufacturers association, FEVE, commissioned a consumer research project last year involving 10,000 15-minute interviews in 13 European countries, it was able to boast that 91 per cent of interviewees agreed glass is the best packaging material for wine. (Brits are the most sceptical about glass, apparently — only 82 per cent of us agreed.)

On the strength of this research, Europe’s glass manufacturers have come up with a new hallmark on bottles that, as far as I can make out, merely confirms that the bottle you have in your hand is indeed made of glass, even if the design of the logo vaguely suggests recyclability.

The official online presentation of this innovation last November skipped lightly over the massive carbon footprint of producing and transporting glass bottles, the biggest factors in any winemaker’s carbon audit. A greener sort of furnace, which relies more on electric power than fossil fuels, is being piloted in Germany over the next few years, yet it will require considerable effort and investment for bottle manufacturers to reach FEVE’s ambition of carbon neutrality by 2050.


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One of the keys to this is, of course, recycling rates. The figure FEVE likes to quote is that Europe’s “average glass collection for recycling rate” is 76 per cent (which it would like to see reach 90 per cent by 2030), though it acknowledges that not all of this will ultimately be recycled.

In the UK, each local authority is in charge of contracting waste management, which means that standards and practices can vary enormously from place to place. Overall, only 68 per cent of all glass containers in the UK are recycled, compared with well over 90 per cent in Switzerland and Scandinavia. (Swiss citizens are incentivised by a combination of free glass collection points and a tax on bags for general rubbish.) The British Standards Institution, which sets national standards for everything from financial services to medical devices, would like to see recycling protocols harmonised.

Recycling bottles is complicated. They come in all sorts of colours which have to be separated from each other, while labels and foils have to be removed. The farsighted Torres winemaking family in Catalonia is pressing for a standard wine bottle that could be recycled and reused anywhere in the world — or at least anywhere in Europe to begin with.

Yet this would require EU legislation, admits Miguel Torres, which seems a very distant possibility to me, when so many wine producers choose to use bottle design and weight — especially weight — to try to carve out a distinctive identity for their wines. (It was notable in a recent online forum on the future of wine that the greatest opprobrium was directed towards those who use heavy bottles unnecessarily.)

Increased awareness of sustainability issues has also resulted in a flurry of new designs for wine packaging. These include a replica of a standard bottle from Frugalpac, which is made from 94 per cent recycled paperboard (and “a food-grade liner”) that can in turn be recycled.

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One of the most energetic and thoughtful innovators on this side of the Atlantic has been Santiago Navarro, chief executive of Garçon Wines. He has designed an almost flat wine bottle that can fit through a letter box and is much lighter, considerably more space-saving and less fragile than the traditional glass bottle. If the option of an active oxygen scavenger is applied, the wine will stay fresh for more than 12 months before opening, he claims.

A keen diver, he is well aware of the problems of plastic waste, as highlighted so vividly by David Attenborough in his Blue Planet series. Even though the food-friendly PET plastic from which Navarro’s smooth, olive-green bottle is moulded has already been used once — and in general plastic has a much lower carbon footprint than single-use glass — some consumers are convinced that all plastic is evil.

In fact, there are many different forms of plastic, of which PET is arguably the most sustainable, and Navarro treasures the letter he received from Sir David congratulating him on his novel design.

The problem with plastic is not so much the material itself but how to manage it after use. According to the British Plastics Federation, about 50 per cent of all plastic in the UK is recycled. Yet unlike glass, which can be recycled many times, plastic can be recycled effectively much less often because it degrades — though work is ongoing to improve this.

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Wine in cans is becoming popular in the US, where a high proportion of all drinks is sold in cans already. They tend to be much smaller than a regular bottle and, let’s face it, there are some pretty huge disadvantages to the 75cl bottle. It’s way too much for one person, often too much for two at a single sitting, and the unit price is far higher than a can’s, which some younger potential wine drinkers in particular find off-putting. Cans are convenient: they can easily be popped into a picnic bag or even, should we return to office life, a briefcase.

Made from steel or aluminium, they can also be recycled almost infinitely. Still, like glass, the manufacturing process is heavy on energy and resources.

Glass, so usefully inert, will surely remain the material of choice for fine wine that deserves long ageing, but for the sake of the planet we do need to look more favourably on the alternatives for that which is drunk within days or weeks of purchase — which constitutes by far the majority of all wine sold.

Borough Wines in London deserves mention for its work founding Sustainable Wine Solutions, which offers a bottle return scheme, a refillable box (a “zero-waste alternative to bag-in-box”) and what it claims are “the UK’s only 100 per cent reusable kegs”. The latter are a fine solution for restaurants and bars — should they ever be in business again.

This article has been amended since publication to make clear that latest government figures show 68 per cent of glass in the UK is recycled, not 50 per cent as originally stated

Tasting notes on Purple Pages of JancisRobinson.com

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Stainless steel has unique properties which can be taken advantage of in a wide variety of applications in the construction industry. This paper reviews how research activities over the last 20 years have impacted the use of stainless steel in construction. Significant technological advances in materials processing have led to the development of duplex stainless steel tubing with excellent mechanical properties; important progress has also been made in the improvement of surface finishes for architectural applications Structural research programmes across the world have laid the ground for the development of national and international specifications, codes and standards spanning both the design, fabrication and erection processes. Recommendations are made on research activities aimed at overcoming obstacles to the wider use of stainless steel in construction. New opportunities for stainless steel arising from the shift towards sustainable development are reviewed, including its use in nuclear containment structures, thin-walled cladding and composite floor systems.

Stainless steels are used in countless diverse applications for their corrosion resistance. Although they have extremely good general resistance, they are nevertheless susceptible to pitting corrosion. This localized dissolution of an oxide-covered metal in specific aggressive environments is one of the most common and catastrophic causes of failure of metallic structures. The pitting process has been described as random, sporadic and stochastic and the prediction of the time and location of events remains extremely difficult1. Many contested models of pitting corrosion exist, but one undisputed aspect is that manganese sulphide inclusions play a critical role. Indeed, the vast majority of pitting events are found to occur at, or adjacent to, such second-phase particles2,3. Chemical changes in and around sulphide inclusions have been postulated4 as a mechanism for pit initiation but such variations have never been measured. Here we use nanometre-scale secondary ion mass spectroscopy to demonstrate a significant reduction in the Cr:Fe ratio of the steel matrix around MnS particles. These chromium-depleted zones are susceptible to high-rate dissolution that ‘triggers’ pitting. The implications of these results are that materials processing conditions control the likelihood of corrosion failures, and these data provide a basis for optimizing such conditions.

Stainless steel remains stainless, or does not rust, because of the interaction between its alloying elements and the environment. Stainless steel contains iron, chromium, manganese, silicon, carbon and, in many cases, significant amounts of nickel and molybdenum. These elements react with oxygen from water and air to form a very thin, stable film that consists of such corrosion products as metal oxides and hydroxides. Chromium plays a dominant role in reacting with oxygen to form this corrosion product film. In fact, all stainless steels by definition contain at least 10 percent chromium.

The presence of the stable film prevents additional corrosion by acting as a barrier that limits oxygen and water access to the underlying metal surface. Because the film forms so readily and tightly, even only a few atomic layers reduce the rate of corrosion to very low levels. The fact that the film is much thinner than the wavelength of light makes it difficult to see without the aid of modern instruments. Thus, although the steel is corroded on the atomic level, it appears stainless. Common inexpensive steel, in contrast, reacts with oxygen from water to form a relatively unstable iron oxide/hydroxide film that continues to grow with time and exposure to water and air. As such, this film, otherwise known as rust, achieves sufficient thickness to make it easily observable soon after exposure to water and air.

In summary, stainless steel does not rust because it is sufficiently reactive to protect itself from further attack by forming a passive corrosion product layer. (Other important metals such as titanium and aluminum also rely on passive film formation for their corrosion resistance.) Because of its durability and aesthetic appeal, 304 stainless steel 3 inch pipe is used in a wide variety of products, ranging from eating utensils to bank vaults to kitchen sinks.

Completely and infinitely recyclable, stainless steel is the “green material” par excellence. In fact, within the construction sector, its actual recovery rate is close to 100%. Stainless steel is also environmentally neutral and inert, and its longevity ensures it meets the needs of sustainable construction. Furthermore, it does not leach compounds that could modify its composition when in contact with elements like water.

In addition to these environmental benefits, 304 stainless steel round tube is also aesthetically appealing, extremely hygienic, easy to maintain, highly durable and offers a wide variety of aspects. As a result, stainless steel can be found in many everyday objects. It also plays a prominent role in an array of industries, including energy, transportation, building, research, medicine, food and logistics. 

Stainless steel is a type of steel alloy containing a minimum of 10.5% chromium. Chromium imparts corrosion resistance to the metal. Corrosion resistance is achieved by creating a thin film of metal oxides that acts as protection against corrosive materials. A popular grade of stainless steel is stainless steel 316. Stainless steel 316 is generally composed of 16 – 18% chromium, 10 – 14% nickel, 2 – 3% molybdenum, and about 0.08% carbon. The added molybdenum makes this grade more corrosion resistant than the other types. Aside from those mentioned, other elements can be added to modify certain properties of the alloy. Stainless steel 316 is widely used in highly corrosive environments such as chemical plants, refineries, and marine equipment.

Stainless steel 316L has a lower carbon content and is used in applications that subject the metal to risks of sensitization. The higher carbon variant is stainless steel 316H which offers greater thermal stability and creep resistance. Another widely used grade of stainless steel 316 is the stabilized 316Ti. Stainless steel 316Ti offers better resistance to intergranular corrosion.

Stainless steel utilizes the principle of passivation wherein metals become "passive" or unreactive to oxidation from corrosive compounds found in the atmosphere and process fluids. Passivation is done by allowing the stainless steel to be exposed to air where it builds chromium oxides on its surface. To enhance the formation of the passive film, the alloy is introduced to a chemical treatment process where it is thoroughly cleaned by submerging it in acidic passivation baths of nitric acid. Contaminants such as exogenous iron or free iron compounds are removed to prevent them from interfering in creating the passive layer. After cleaning with an acidic bath, the metal is then neutralized in a bath of aqueous sodium hydroxide. Descaling is also done to remove other oxide films formed by high-temperature milling operations such as hot-forming, welding, and heat treatment.

Stainless steels are available in various grades that are used for specific applications. Different grades have their degree of corrosion resistance, strength, toughness, high and low-temperature performance. Stainless steel grades are generally classified according to their microstructure. There are five main groups of stainless steel. These are austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, duplex, and precipitation hardening.

Austenitic Stainless Steels: These are the largest group of stainless steels which comprise around two-thirds of all 304l stainless steel tube production. Their austenitic microstructure allows them to be tough and ductile, even at cryogenic temperatures. Moreover, they do not lose their strength when subjected to high temperatures. These attributes result in excellent formability and weldability. Since the austenitic structure is maintained at all temperatures, they do not respond to heat treatment. Their hardness and high tensile strength are acquired through cold working. Austenitic stainless steels are further divided according to the austenite forming elements.

Stainless Steel 300 Series: These are stainless steels that achieve their austenitic microstructure through the addition of nickel. These are the largest subgroup and are considered general-purpose stainless steels. This sub-group includes stainless steel 316 and other popular grades such as 302, 304, and 317.
Stainless Steel 200 Series: These are austenitic stainless steels that use manganese and nitrogen to minimize the use of nickel. Alloying with nitrogen increases their yield strength by approximately 50% than 300 series stainless steel. However, lowering the nickel content reduces the corrosion resistance of the alloy.
Ferritic Stainless Steels: As the name suggests, these are stainless steels that have a ferritic microstructure. Its ferritic microstructure is present at all temperatures due to the addition of chromium with little or no austenite forming elements such as nickel. Because of this constant microstructure, like the austenitic stainless steel, they do not respond to heat treatment. They are more difficult to weld due to excessive grain growth and intermetallic phase precipitation, especially at higher chromium content. The result is lower toughness after welding which makes them unsuitable for structural materials. Ferritic stainless steels are designated as AISI 400 series. This designation is shared with martensitic stainless steels.

Martensitic Unit Cell: These stainless steels have higher amounts of carbon that promotes a martensitic microstructure. Martensitic stainless steels are hardenable by heat treatment. When heated above its curie temperature, they have an austenitic microstructure. From an austenitic state, cooling rapidly results in martensite while cooling slowly promotes the formation of ferrites and cementite. Varying the carbon content results in a wide range of mechanical properties which makes them suitable for engineering steels and tool steels. Increasing the carbon content makes the stainless steel harder and stronger while decreasing it makes the alloy more ductile and formable. However, adding more carbon results in lower chromium to maintain a martensitic microstructure. Thus, higher strength is attained at the expense of corrosion resistance. They generally have lower corrosion resistance than ferritic and austenitic 316 stainless pipe.

Duplex Stainless Steels: This type of stainless steel consists of a combination of austenitic and ferritic metallurgical structures, usually in equal amounts. It is created by adding more chromium and nickel to a standard martensitic stainless steel which promotes a duplex ferritic-austenitic microstructure. Since they do not have a constant ferritic and austenitic microstructure, they respond to heat treatment. Austenitic stainless steel is far superior to ferritic in terms of corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. However, they are highly susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. Stress corrosion cracking happens when a crack propagates when the material is subjected to a highly corrosive environment. This can lead to sudden failure of ductile materials. A ferritic microstructure is resistant to stress corrosion cracking. By combining the ferritic phase with the austenitic phase, added resistance to stress corrosion cracking is obtained. Aside from improved corrosion resistance and mechanical properties, the price of duplex stainless steels is more stable than austenitic. This is attributed to the lower nickel content. The most common grade is the standard duplex 2205. Duplex stainless steels are not covered by AISI designation.

Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels: These are stainless steels that can further be modified by precipitation hardening. Initially, precipitation hardening stainless steels are supplied in a solution annealed condition. Manufacturers can perform an additional aging process to attain the desired mechanical properties. Note that this heat treatment has a different mechanism than hardening martensitic stainless steels. In precipitation hardening, precipitates or secondary phase particles are allowed to form at elevated temperatures usually lower than the curie temperature. The formation of these secondary phase particles is promoted by alloying elements such as copper, niobium, aluminum, and titanium. Their growth rate, size, and dispersion are controlled by temperature and time. These secondary phase particles act as dislocation sites to the crystal structure which improves the overall toughness and strength of the metal. Moreover, they have comparable corrosion resistance with austenitic and ferritic stainless steels, unlike the martensitic varieties.

Showing up for work punctually, at an official time, became expected behavior toward the end of the 19th century, as more and more people worked for others rather than for themselves. Not just the work force's punctuality was at issue. Cost accounting and analysis--recording and scrutinizing expenses for labor, materials and overhead--were getting more attention than ever before. Time was money.
In the 1890s, timekeepers-- clerks who kept track of employees' hours in handwritten logs --found that machines were beginning to replace them, especially in workplaces with large numbers of employees. Thanks to the influence of the advocates of scientific management, nearly every industrial workplace had a time clock, after about 1910. So did many offices. By the early twentieth century the International Time Recording Company supplied an entire line of timekeeping devices, including master clocks, several types of time clocks, and time stamps. Founded in 1900, the firm continuously expanded its product line, underwent several reorganizations and name changes, and emerged in 1924 as the International Business Machine Corporation, familiar today as IBM.One of the firm's most popular products was the card punch time recorder, a clock that could furnish a daily or weekly record of up to 150 employees. Based on the 1888 patent of physician Alexander Dey, the dial time recorder was essentially a spring-driven clock with a cast-iron wheel affixed to its dial side. The rim of the wheel was perforated with numbered holes. As employees pressed a rotating pointer into the hole at their assigned number, the machine recorded the time on a preprinted sheet and rang a bell with each punch. A two-color ribbon printed all regular time in green and all tardiness, early departures, and overtime in red.This International digital card punch time recorder hung in a factory in the garment district of New York City.

Time recording clock is a time recording machine used to record the lime of arrival and departure of an employee. The time is recorded on the card allotted to each employee of the organisation. The card is punched in this machine, which records the time of arrival and departure automatically. These machines are fitted with a clock to show the time. The advantages of the use of time recording machines are:

(a) It records the actual time of arrival and departure.

(b) It is not possible to manipulate the time in case of late arrival or early departure.

It is necessary to keep proper record of time for each worker as it ensures discipline, increases morale and makes him punctual.

This function of keeping proper record of time is looked after by the time-keeping department. In a small organisation, such a department may not exist at all since the time of coming and going can be easily regulated by the person in changes of operations in the factory or the office.

Time keeping is a system of recording the time of arrival and departure of workers; it provides a record of total time spent by each worker engaged in the factory. On the basis of this record, wages are paid to the workers under time rate system.

The regal contains the columns like name and identity no. of the worker, the department in which he is working, arrival and departure time. As soon as a worker enters into the preprint of the factory, the necessary entries in the attendance register are completed. If workers are literate; they are required to sign the attendance register.

After the reports time workers are marked late or absent as the case may be. Similar entries are made the time of departure.

This method is very simple and inexpensive. But in a large factory this meth may become inconvenient. Moreover, this method is liable for many undesirable’ practices on the part of the persons who record the attendance in collusion with sour workers. This method is suitable for small factories and out-doors workers.

Under this method, each worker is allotted a metal disc or token bearing his identification. On each disc or token the name and number of the worker is engraved or painted. All the tokens 01; discs are hung on a board at the gate or at the entrance of the department.

As soon as a worker reports for duty, he removes his disc and puts it in a box provided nearby. Immediately after the scheduled time of entry, the board is removed and a list is prepared for all such discs or tokens not collected and dropped into the box by the workers.

The late-comers collect their discs and hand over the same personally to the time keeper. The list of late-comers is prepared separately. The discs not removed from the boards represent the absentee workers.

This method is simple and economical. But it is not free from abuses. A worker may remove the disc of his fellow-worker to ensure his presence who is either late or absent.
There is no certainty that the exact arrival time of the workers has been recorded. The time keeper marking the attendance may commit errors deliberately or through carelessness and this may create disputes. Time keeper may include the dummy or ghost workers in the muster roll that cannot be easily detected except by close supervision.

2. Mechanical Methods

Different mechanical devices have been designed for recording the exact time of the workers. These include:

(a) Time Recording Clocks

(b) analogue card punch time recorder

(a) Time Recording Clocks

This method has been developed to remove some of the difficulties faced in case of manual methods. Under this method, the attendance is marked by a time recording clock on a card. Every worker is allotted a time card usually for one week duration.

These time cards are serially arranged in a tray at the gate of the factory. On arrival the worker picks up his card from the tray and inserts the same into the time recording clock which prints the exact arrival time at the space provided on the card against the particular day.

This process is repeated when the worker leaves the factory after day’s work. Other particulars of time in respect of late arrival, lunch, and overtime are printed is red colour so as to distinguish these from normal period spent in the factory.

This method is useful when the number of workers is fairly large. There are also no chances of disputes arising due to recording of time of workers as it is recorded by the clock and not by the time keeper.

But there are chances that a worker may get his friend’s card from the tray and mark him present in time when he is actually late or absent. Any mechanical defect may adversely affect the working of time recording system.

The dial time recorder is a machine which records the correct attendance time of the worker automatically. It has a dial around the clock with a number of hold (usually about 150), each of which bears a number corresponding to the identification number of the worker concerned.

There is a radial arm at the centre of the dial. While a worker enters into the factory; he is required to press the radial arm after placing ill at the appropriate hole. The time recorder then automatically records the time on a roll of paper within the machine against the number of the worker.

This machine can also! calculate the wages of the workers with greater accuracy and avoids much loss of time, I But a heavy capital investment is needed and hence only large organisations can use It is also necessary to have a close supervision on every worker to prevent fraud and I irregularities.
Make employee scheduling and pay calculation easier with this fingerprint time attendance. A perfect choice for tracking hours in busy workplaces, this time stamp keeps accurate time within fractions of a second by automatically syncing with codes from the National Institute of Standards and Technology. This device automatically adjusts for Daylight Saving Time and ensures consistent accuracy during power failures using an internal battery backup. Featuring over 150 print configurations and 13 messages in four languages, this device makes it easy to print custom messages in two hour formats and a variety of font sizes. Compatible with a variety of forms and time cards, this flexible machine aligns any document perfectly with an internal LED and a window over the print area. This Acroprint time recorder informs users of the time and date with a large, bold display.

Black/gray punch card time clock system for unlimited number of employees
LCD display helps you keep track of time by showing the time and date in 24- or 12-hour format
Durable construction and key lock help protect clock and settings from damage or tampering
Employees use printable time cards
Dimensions: 5.63"H x 6.45"W x 6.77"D
Desk- or wall-mountable for flexible and convenient placement
Battery backup protects data and settings during power outages
Selectable language format: English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish
2-year manufacturer limited warranty
No resetting needed.The LCD backlight digital time punching machine synchronizes automatically with time codes transmitted by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, keeping it incredibly accurate. The internal battery backup keeps the clock on time, even during power outages.Flexible options.With over 150 possible print configurations and 13 preset messages in your choice of four languages, the ES700 easily supports a wide variety of time & attendance and document control applications. This time stamp accomodates virtually any time card, document or form, offering adjustable print font size, your choice of automatic, semi-automatic or manual print operation, and left or right hand print. The power supply is switchable from 120V to 240V.Easy to use.Cards and documents are a snap to align correctly, thanks to a handy window in the cover and a bright internal LED illuminating the document print area.