Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has become one of the dominant construction materials for sewer systems over the past decades, as a result of its reputed merits. However, since PVC sewer pipes have operated for decades in a hostile environment, concern over their longevity has been lately raised by sewer managers in the Netherlands. Towards that direction, the main factors and mechanisms that affect a PVC pipe’s lifetime are discussed in this article, along with the current lifetime prediction methods and their limitations. The review of relevant case studies indicates that material degradation, if any, occurs slowly. However, inspection (CCTV) data of three Dutch municipalities reveals that severe defects have already surfaced and degradation evolves at an unexpected fast rate. A main reason of this gap between literature and practice is the fact that comprehensive material testing of PVC sewer pipes is rarely found in the literature although it proves to be essential in order to trustfully assess the level of degradation and its origins.
Plastics are used for a wide range of commercial and industrial piping applications. The most known are polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS), polybutylene (PB) and glass–fibre-reinforced polyester (GRP or FRP). Concerning piping systems for drinking water supply, gas distribution and sewage disposal, PVC, PE and PP are the most popular polymer materials (PlasticsEurope, 2017). Especially for gravity sewer pipes, PVC has been extensively used over the past decades and has become the dominant construction material. Cost efficiency, ease of installation, range of available diameters (40–630 mm) and its reputed chemical resistance favour its wide acceptance by decision makers in urban drainage (Davidovski, 2016).

Since there are PVC sewer pipes in operation for at least four decades, concern over their longevity has been lately raised in the Netherlands. It is still unknown whether the expectations of long-lasting PVC pipes (Folkman, 2014) will prove realistic or new asset management strategies should be established in the near future. Knowledge of the current structural integrity of sewer systems is a key issue for establishing successful asset management strategies, leading to better decision making and more affordable investments. In practice, sewer managers currently base their strategies mainly on visual (CCTV) inspections (Van Riel, Langeveld, Herder, & Clemens, 2014). Subsequently, decisions are taken whether replacement, rehabilitation or a near future inspection should take place. However, linking the observed defects in CCTV to the actual physical state of a pipe is challenging (Van Riel, 2017). A necessary condition for achieving this is comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms that affect a PVC pipe’s lifetime, their combined effects and eventually their results, which are the defects found in practice. An overview of these mechanisms and their origins is included in this article. Lifetime prediction methods for UPVC pipes are also utilised to describe specific types of failure, while their ability to provide trustful lifetime prediction is discussed.
The main aim of this article is to present case studies of PVC sewer pipes found in the literature and to compare the derived conclusions on PVC durability with findings in inspection (CCTV) data. Emphasis is given on the studies that investigate the properties that define the structural integrity and overall performance of a sewer system. The inspection data concerns three different municipalities in The Netherlands: Almere, Amstelveen and Breda. The main discrepancies between literature and inspection data are discussed, as a step towards bridging results from scientific research and observations from practice.
Suspension polymerisation is the most applied process for PVC particles production (80%), whereas emulsion and mass polymerisation provide 12 and 8% of the world production, respectively (Fischer, Schmitt, Porth, Allsopp, & Vianello, 2014). Although the specific details of the PVC particles size slightly differ in the literature (Benjamin, 1980; Butters, 1982; Faulkner, 1975), the microstructure follows the same pattern. This can be described in three stages (Butters, 1982): the stage III-PVC particle (∼100–150 μm), the stage II-primary particle (∼0.1–2 μm) and the stage I particle (∼10 nm). The conversion of the material to a homogeneous product requires that the boundaries of the primary particles disappear and a new continuous entanglement network is developed (Visser, 2009). This procedure is known as the gelation process and its quality is expressed by the gelation level. There are several methods to obtain information about the gelation level (Castillo, 2016; Choi, Lynch, Rudin, Teh, & Batiste, 1992; Fillot, Hajji, Gauthier, & Masenelli-Varlot, 2006; Gilbert & Vyvoda, 1981; Gramann, Cruz, & Ralston, 2010; Johansson & Törnell, 1986; Kim, Cotterell, & Mai, 1987; Marshall & Birch, 1982; Real, João, Pimenta, & Diogo, 2018; Terselius, Jansson, & Bystedt, 1981; Van der Heuvel, 1982).

A general accepted opinion suggests optimum gelation levels of 60–85% (Benjamin, 1980; Breen, 2006). A temperature of >250 °C is needed for this purpose (Guerrero & Keller, 1981), much higher than the degradation temperature of PVC which is ∼205 °C (Wypych, 2015). Due to this fact, thermal energy is complemented with mechanical energy (high shear stresses) by the use of twin rotating screws, so as to accelerate this process without extensive exposure of the material to high temperatures (Visser, 2009). Subsequently, the molten material is introduced in a die so that the final pipe is shaped and cooled. This manufacturing technique is called extrusion and is extensively used to form pipes. Fittings, such as joints, are formed by the injection moulding technique. In the injection moulding process, the melted plastic is injected in a mould, which gives the desired form to the PVC fitting, and after cooling the product is ejected.

During the production process, several additives and fillers may be incorporated in the polymers structure in order to enhance its chemical and physical properties, respectively. Plasticisers and stabilisers are the main additives as they affect the behaviour and degradation rate of the material through its lifecycle. Plasticisers are utilised in order to replace some monomers of the polymer chain, offering a higher degree of mobility and, hence, more flexibility. For sewer applications unplasticised rigid PVC pipes are used. Stabilisers are added for increased resistance to e.g.: UV rays, chemical attack and other relevant external factors (Cardarelli, 2008). For pvc pipework in Europe, lead has been used until the early 2000s, when it was replaced by calcium-based stabilisers in most countries (Anders, 2014).

Every step within the production of PVC pipes and furniture PVC fittings can have an effect on the long-term performance of the final product. The levels of water and oxygen during polymerisation could influence the formation and quality of the produced PVC particles (Butters, 1982). Subsequently, the gelation process, already affected by the degree of polymerisation (Fujiyama & Kondou, 2004), plays a major role in the mechanical properties (Mandell, Darwish, & McGarry, 1982; Moghri, Garmabi, & Akbarian, 2003; Truss, 1985; Van der Heuvel, 1982). These properties are determined by the morphology of the material (Benjamin, 1980; Kuriyama, Narisawa, Shina, & Kotaki, 1998) and by the polymer’s orientation and molecular mobility (Fillot, Hajji, Gauthier, & Masenelli-Varlot, 2007). Additionally, impurities and voids in the polymer structure, frequently referred to as inherent defects, are introduced during production, resulting in crack initiators, and their presence seems to be inevitable (Johansson & Törnell, 1987). The wear observed at the polymer pipes extruders (Gladchenko, Shevelya, Kiyanitsa, & Derkach, 1997) might also contribute to the occurrence of inherent defects.

Residual stresses are also introduced during production, as a result of different cooling rates between the inner and the outer pipe surface (Siegmann, Buchman, & Kenig, 1981), and constitute another parameter that affects the mechanical properties of the produced pipe (Siegmann, Buchman, & Kenig, 1982). Relevant research on residual stresses in PVC pipes (Breen, 2006; Meerman, 2008; Scholten, van der Stok, Gerets, Wenzel, & Boege, 2016) has revealed that their magnitude is in a range of 0.9–4.8 MPa for tensile and 3.9–9.4 for compressive stresses (Table 1). In principle, a faster cooling rate or a thicker pipe wall thickness will lead to higher levels of residual stresses (Janson, 2003; Scholten et al., 2016). However, irrespective of their magnitude, residual stresses affect the crack propagation as they change the stress profile through the pipe (Burn, 1992; Chaoui, Chudnovsky, & Moet, 1987), increase the brittle–ductile temperature (Scholten et al., 2016), and, consequently, they seem to have a tremendous effect on the lifetime of pressurised plastic pipes (Hutař et al., 2013; Poduška et al., 2016).

This article discusses the significant factors in the selection of forging equipment for a particular process. It describes the characteristics of forging hydraulic presses, mechanical presses, screw presses, and hammers. The article discusses the significant characteristics of these machines that comprise all machine design and performance data, which are pertinent to the economic use of the machines, including the characteristics for load and energy, time-related characteristics, and characteristics for accuracy.
The forging of metals and alloys is one of the oldest metal forming techniques used by humankind. Forging processes were improved over the centuries and are still being refined. Today, we are certain that there is no limit to these improvements and that we will never reach the point when we can say that nothing more is to be done. Despite the enormous knowledge and experience gained over the centuries, we still face new challenges arising from civilizational progress. One of them is the necessity to produce parts that are more and more complex in terms of shape and properties, which requires not only a deep insight into phenomena that accompany forging processes, but also the development of new techniques, riveting machine and equipment, materials, research methods, and tools, as well as the improvement of the existing ones. With the Special Issue on “Forging Processes of Materials”, the Editorial Board of Materials offers authors the possibility of presenting their findings in this field. As the Guest Editor for the Special Issue, I would like to invite you to contribute to this publication, which, I hope, will serve as a source of knowledge for both theoreticians and practitioners. Hence, I encourage authors to submit papers exploring, in a broad sense, the theory and practice of forging metals and alloys. I wish to assure you that we will make every effort to ensure the highest quality of this Special Issue.

Forging is a hot or cold metal deformation process used to produce metal parts where strength is a paramount concern, engine connecting rods and hand tools being two such examples. The process itself involves using compressive forces to mold and deform metal into the desired shape. For most applications, forging entails heating the base metal until it is malleable enough to work with, although cold and warm forging are also done.

The forge, sometimes called a hearth, is the component that heats the metal prior to forming. In its most fundamental form, forging can be understood in the manner of making horseshoes. The blacksmith heats the metal in the hearth, then pounds it with a hammer against an anvil to flatten it, curve it, pierce it, and generally shape it, repeatedly reheating the metal to maintain plasticity. Small gas-fired forges are available for blacksmiths though many forgers choose to build their own.

Modern industrial forging relies on sophisticated, heavy-duty equipment capable of producing small accurate parts as well as large pieces weighing many tons. As with castings and weldments, many forgings are machined after they are made to achieve their final forms. 
An anvil is a large slab of metal, usually made of steel, which serves as the workbench for the blacksmith or automated hydraulic closed die forging hammer device. The metal is placed on the anvil, where it is hammered into the correct shape. Anvils traditionally provide a flat hammering surface, though curved anvil tops are available. A hardy hole and punch hole can sometimes be found on an anvil – the hardy hole serves as the square socket for accepting the shank of a hardy, an interchangeable tool in a variety of shapes used for cutoff, bending, etc. The punch hole provides clearance for punching holes in the metal.

Chisels
Chisels are cutting supplies that chip away at metal. They are traditionally made of high-carbon steel and consist of a long octagonal cross-section with a tapered cutting edge on one end. There are two types of chisels—hot chisels and cold chisels. Cold chisels are typically thinner in construction, and better suited for cold forging. Hot chisels, on the other hand, assist in hot forging processes. Chisels are traditionally applicable in manual forging applications.

Tongs
Tongs assist in the transportation of the heated metal from the forge to the anvil. Many different tong shapes are available to provide adequate gripping of multiple metal shapes and sizes.

Fullers
Forming tools that create grooves or indentions in the forging process are known as fullers. Fullers also help round out corners and stretch the metal. Traditionally used in pairs, fullers work through placing one beneath the metal, and the other on top. This enables the indentation of both sides of the metal component to occur simultaneously.

Forging Hammers
Different forging processes are appropriate for different applications—options such as hot forging, cold forging, closed die forging, upset forging, and press forging are simply a few examples. Many of these forging processes require the use of a hammer to enable compression and shaping of the metal. Forging hammers vary in shape, size, and material based on the particular application, but all industrial hammers typically apply force with a large ram. Two basic types of hammers are:

Drop hammers: Gravity allows the heavy ram to fall onto the metal.
Power hammers: Compressed air, hydraulics, or electricity drive the hammer.
Hammers are capable of delivering percussive impact blows with forces of up to 50,000 lbs. in their largest incarnations, with smaller capacity units also available. For increased forging forces, forgers turn to presses.

Forging Presses
A forging press creates force through mechanical or hydraulic energy without relying on the weight of a hammer and the assistance of gravity to pound metal into the desired shape. Whereas hammers shape a localized portion of the metal, a forging press can forge the entire product at once in a process known as closed-die forging. Forging presses also duplicate the action of hammers in the open die forging process. Both horizontal and vertical forging presses are available. The horizontal presses are called upsetters. Two types of forging presses include:

Mechanical forging press: A mechanical device (often a crank) propels a motor-driven flywheel, forcing the ram against the metal. Mechanical presses are not suited for forging large or complex items but are beneficial in applications that require simple shaping effects. They are capable of producing forces of up to 20,000 tons.
Hydraulic forging press: High-pressure fluid propelled by hydraulic pumps forces the ram against the metal. Hydraulic presses can provide higher forces than mechanical presses, and are sometimes preferred for applications that create large or complex components. Small hydraulic presses are available for blacksmithing operations with forces starting around 10 tons and they grow increasingly more forceful from there, with some very large presses operating in the 50,000-ton range and beyond.
Forging Dies
Forging presses used for closed-die forging require forging dies to properly mold the metal. Dies act as molds into which the hot, malleable metal is pressed. Since dies are unique to each forging project, they are expensive and can lead to high set-up costs prior to forging – forging with dies is best suited for moderate to large production runs. There are two main types of forging dies:

Open die: Open dies are akin to the blacksmith’s hammer and anvil and are usually available in shapes that accomplish specific tasks such as squaring. They do not completely encase the metal, providing free flow everywhere except where the metal meets the die. Open die forging is a good choice for custom metalworking applications as it can be used to produce as few as a single forging. It is also useful in forging very large parts. Where a blacksmith might use tongs to grapple the hot metal forging, many larger forgings are handled by mechanical manipulators because of their immense weight. Open die forging depends a great deal on the skill of the forger to produce the desired shapes. In addition to producing stepped shafting, rings, and cylindrical hollows, open die forging is often used to produce the hemispherical ends of pressure vessels.
Closed die: Here, the metal is completely encased. When the CNC hydraulic die forging hammer or press pushes against the metal, the metal flows and fills the die cavity or cavities. Typically, the pre-forged part will have some resemblance to the final forging before it is placed in the die, preformed by a series of so-called blocker dies.
Summary
This article presents a brief discussion of metal forging tools and equipment. For more information on other products, consult our other guides or visit the Thomas Supplier Discovery Platform to locate potential sources. More information on forging and forging equipment may be found at the Forging Industry Association website.
Modern science and industry have accumulated many efficient methods of forming by hammer forging, such as setting with shift or torsion, sectional forging, expansion by rolls etc. However, they are difficult for realization on forging equipment, what hampers their adoption in industry. Hence technological conservatism in forging. Even state-off-the-art forging complexes have brought no fundamental change into the hammer forging process.

Within the present work we have developed a new composition structure of a forging machine suitable for conventional operations of hammer forging as well as for new operations, unusual for hammer and press forging. The structure of the machine, hereinafter referred to as an automated forging center (AFC) permits to solve the problems of combining external forces, producing new shapes of deformation zones, efficient use of the tool magazine.

Physical and mathematical simulation of technological operations have been carried out to estimate forming and forse parameters, some results being presented in the paper.

As if learning the vocabulary, geography, and producers in the wine world isn’t challenging enough, there are also different types of glassware—and figuring out the best wine glasses is no small feat. In the last couple of decades, glass manufacturers have made a killing off of creating dozens of glassware lines and convincing wine drinkers we need multiple types of glasses to be serious about wine. Although the glassware section of my book, Wine for Normal People, wound up on the cutting room floor, this is a topic my podcast listeners love to ask about and one I was excited to reexamine.
I guess we should start with the most important question: Does a glass really make a difference to a wine’s taste? After copious research and testing, I can tell you that glassware does matter to your enjoyment of wine. Certain glass shapes and materials do enhance wine’s aroma and flavor—and some even detract from it! I tested several highly regarded wine glasses and found the best premium, mid-tier, and affordable options for all kinds of wine drinkers. 
Ahead, discover all the winners and a thorough breakdown of our testing methods. We’ve also included a primer on the merits of different liquor glass shapes. 
Zalto is widely considered the gold standard of glassware by wine connoisseurs and professionals alike. It is made of mouth blown, nonleaded crystal; it’s incredibly light; and it’s shaped like a piece of art. It’s beyond fragile and using this glass is a bit unnerving, but in test after test with wine after wine, it not only allowed the wine to express itself, but in many cases it made the wine taste better than all the other glasses.
From white and red Burgundy to white and red Bordeaux, Italian white to California rosé, Chilean Pinot Noir to Spanish Rioja, the Zalto glass improved the naturally occurring aromas and flavors of each wine effortlessly. But to go a step further, the amazing thing about the Zalto is that it seems to elevate the wine’s subtleties and nuances, introducing new or stronger positive aromas and flavors that the other glasses don’t. For instance, you may get notes of an old medieval church incense and black pepper in a northern Rhône Syrah with the Zalto, but just an herbal note from other glasses (I know it’s crazy but it’s true).
The experience of swirling with Zalto is unlike any other—the lightweight construction and virtually spill-proof bowl (it tapers significantly) made for the most effortless spin, allowing for great aeration and giving it huge points for ease of use. The tapering at the top made every wine’s aromas shine so completely, to the point where the wines felt actually transformed and seemed to transcend themselves.
Although this is technically a Burgundy glass, I found that it improved a variety of wines almost universally. In a lineup of 10 glasses, even done blindfolded, this glass over-performed on experience, flavor, aroma, and comfort. Although the delicate quality of these glasses had me a bit stressed with each use and especially each (hand) wash, it wasn’t enough to deter me from grabbing it over every other glass, every night. It is, despite its fragility, the undisputed best wine glass you can get for your wine.
Because it is so expensive, we recommend just the Burgundy glass as the one you need, but if you have some extra change lying around and drink white wine, pick up those too.
Okay, so, it’s no Zalto, but the Riedel Veritas is half the cost and was a consistent runner-up in test after test. This glass is still fragile thanks to a spindly stem the company has become known for, but the leaded crystal has a slightly sturdier construction than the Zalto while still boasting a narrow rim that feels luxurious and comfortable for sipping.
The Pinot Noir glass did equally well with red Burgundy, Nebbiolo, Bordeaux and more tannic reds. Fuller whites were even slightly better in this one than in the Zalto. The white wine glass enhances the aromas of German Riesling, Italian whites like Fiano, and New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc.

The Veritas does exactly what a great glass should do: allow ample swirling room and enhance the wine’s natural characteristics for both the white glass and the red. The difference between this and the Zalto, for reds specifically, is that the Veritas doesn’t add the nuance and subtleties the Zalto does. It doesn’t improve the wine or allow the more intricate notes to come out. But what it lacks in whatever magic of the Zalto is, it makes up for in affordability and the fact that this glass is less nerve-racking to drink from. That said, Riedel claims these are dishwasher-safe, but unless you plan to make these stemless glasses (My take on that below!), the stem is imminently breakable. These have to be hand-washed.
This little glass (the company is owned by Riedel now, though it was once their biggest competition!) outperformed much more expensive glasses with its thin lip, excellent bowl for swirling, and ability to concentrate aromas. The red and white glasses are thin, but felt sturdy enough that I never worried about breaking them. They go into the dishwasher and come out in one piece. For the money, these glasses are the little engine that could. They came in third or fourth place in tasting every single wine—from Nebbiolo to Malbec, Chardonnay to Grüner Veltliner. This is an elegant everyday glass and it blows away its competitors (Schott-Zwiesel, Stozle, Libbey, and the more expensive Gabriel-Glas). I will warn that although the white glass is spectacular, it is quite small in comparison to the Burgundy glass. It works great, but it can be surprising when you open it, especially in comparison to the ample size of the brandy glass.
You don’t need a glass for every region or grape but depending on what and how you drink, there are four standard glass shapes you should consider. The combination of these shapes plus the cost, fragility, washability, and comfort in holding and drinking will be the keys to getting the best wine glass for you.

The White Wine Glass
Shaped like a tulip, this glass has a round bowl and goes straight up before tapering slightly at the top. The bottom of the glass allows you to swirl without spilling, but the real magic of a white wine glass is that it concentrates aromas of the wine at the rim and traps them slightly so we can sniff the (hopefully) delicious things the wine has to offer.

The standard white glass is a bit smaller than the red: Because whites don’t need as much aeration (swirling), they’re smaller. Also, whites are almost always served colder than reds. Pouring smaller quantities into the glass will ensure that what you have in the glass always stays at a cool temperature. This Vodka glass type will work for almost all white wines, except for fuller whites like oaked Chardonnay and white blends from the Rhône Valley, for example.
Shaped a bit like an upside-down mushroom, these glasses have wide bowls and then taper at the top to a narrow rim. The huge bowl allows for tons of swirling. With reds and the fuller whites, you want to introduce a lot of air into the wine. The swirling motion jostles the esters and aldehydes in wines, which are the things that make the juice smell so good. In very aromatic but less mouth-drying tannic reds, you want to concentrate the aromas at the rim of the glass to maximize the intensity of smell compounds your nose can sense. The wider base allows room to swirl (you should never fill these glasses above the bulge in the glass or it’s spill city), but the top ensures that delicate aromas of red Burgundy (Pinot Noir), Beaujolais (Gamay), or Nebbiolo, for instance, aren’t lost.

The Bordeaux Glass
This is a giant version of the tulip shape we find in the white wine glass, although it tapers less at the top. The relatively straight sides of this glass and large bowl allow air to penetrate before, during, and after swirling, allowing harsh tannins to dance with the oxygen and soften up—exactly what you need to enjoy a Cabernet Sauvignon, a Bordeaux blend, a Rioja from Spain, or a Syrah from the northern Rhône of France.

The Champagne Flute
This is actually quite a controversial opinion among wine snobs: Flutes are festive, fun, and they do, in fact, help keep the sparkle in your glass for longer. There are some practical issues with these party-perfect glasses: Unless you drink sparkling wine a lot, they tend to gather dust; if you have a beak like mine, that can be an issue for drinking; and—the dork argument—they have no room for swirling. Nevertheless, I love enjoying sparkling out of them and I drink enough of it to have them around. Still, they are optional. A white wine glass works just as well.

What About Universal Wine Glasses?
Try as they might, over and over again, the universal glass always makes one wine or another a loser. They are too narrow for tannic reds and sometimes don’t aerate the wine as much as they should. They are too wide and open for aromatic reds or delicate whites (although they are better for whites than reds most of the time). Regardless of how high-quality the glass, the shape matters too much for these glasses to work for all wine types. My advice: Buy a set of whites and reds (I think Burgundy glasses are more useful than Bordeaux) and leave the universals to people who didn’t read this article.

What About Stemless Wine Glasses?
We did not include any stemless glasses in our tests of the best red wine glass simply because we do not feel they belong in that elevated tier. Because there is no stem, the drinker holds the bowl of the glass in their hand—and that direct contact can possibly increase the temperature of the wine, and that increase in temperature can mess up the flavor of the wine. 

This paper deals with the determination of the stress distribution at the fillet of a ANSI B16.5 flanges attached internally to a hollow cylinder. A load parallel to the axis of the cylinder and of variable eccentricity acts on a bearing plate which rests on the flange. The strains are measured by means of electrical resistance wire strain gages. The ratios of the mean cylinder diameter to the cylinder wall thickness and of the mean cylinder diameter to the flange thickness are varied. The principal stresses at the fillet are given as functions of these parameters. The experimental results are compared with the stresses calculated on the basis of an approximate theoretical solution for both an axial and an eccentric load.
Abstract Joining of steel pipes and pipe flanges use today the conventional method of fusion welding, where the flange is girth-welded onto the pipe. However, fusion welding of flanges to pipes is associated with many disadvantages such as the final quality of the weld, degradation of the mechanical properties of the base pipe near the heat affected zone, defects and cracks appearing in the weld, misalignments, to mention a few. The current study proposes a novel pipe-flange connection to replace the fusion welding process of steel pipes with a method based on cold working. The method is based on that the steel pipe is inserted into the neck of the flange, in which two circumferential grooves are manufactured. An expansion tool having two teeth is entered from the open side of the connection and is expanded hydraulically such that the teeth deform the pipe and cold work it plastically into the grooves. This will provide a strong joint between the flange and pipe. In this study the performance of the connection is maximized by optimizing the design of the flange and the expansion tool.
The use of bolted flange connections in the offshore wind industry has steeply risen in the last few years. This trend is because of failings observed in other modes of joints such as grouted joints, coupled with enormous economic losses associated with such failures. As many aspects of bolted flange connections for the offshore wind industry are yet to be understood in full, the current study undertakes a comprehensive review of the lessons learned about bolted connections from a range of industries such as nuclear, aerospace, and onshore wind for application in offshore wind industry. Subsequently, the collected information could be used to effectively address and investigate ways to improve bolted flange connections in the offshore wind industry. As monopiles constitute an overwhelming majority of foundation types used in the current offshore wind market, this work focusses on large ANSI welding neck flanges in the primary load path of a wind turbine foundation, such as those typically found at the base of turbine towers, or at monopile to transition piece connections. Finally, a summary of issues associated with flanges as well as bolted connections is provided, and insights are recommended on the direction to be followed to address these concerns.
As per recent reports, the offshore wind sector could bring in £17.5 bn investment to the U.K. economy over the next few years after faster than expected cost-cutting slashed subsidies for the technology by half [1]. On top of that, the baseline scenario for the United Kingdom’s installations by the end of 2030 is to reach the capacity levels of 40 GW, four times the current state [2]. Additionally, the target of £100 per MWh set for the year 2020 regarding the levelised cost of energy (LCOE) of offshore wind was achieved in U.K. projects four years earlier in 2016 [3]. The above figures reinforce the need for new technological developments that will enable the utilisation of larger and more efficient offshore wind turbines (OWTs). In this direction, one of the most important concerns is the support structure of the turbine’s tower, which requires further study concerning not only the feasibility of future installations, but also current problems that need to be better understood and addressed.
OWT structures, which are quite large in thickness and diameter, operate in the hostile marine environment, where variable amplitude loads are constantly applied on different parts of the structure [4,5]. In the offshore industry, grouted connections were initially used to charge the transition piece (TP), with a certain overlap length, on the monopile (MP) foundations. Therefore, there is a tube-in-tube connection, wherein the space between the two tubes is filled with grout (Figure 1) [6]. Towards the end of last decade, numerous grouted connection joints between large diameter monopiles and connecting tubular steel transition pieces at the base of overlying support towers were found to be failing. For the majority of U.K. offshore MPs that experienced grout cracking and failures, the issue was recognised to be primarily owing to the widespread absence of shear keys (or weld beads) on straight MP and TP surfaces. Bending moments as a result of complex wind (which was the main difference in loading conditions compared with oil and gas platforms) and wave loading were important design considerations that were not accounted for during design of grouted connections for OWTs. Furthermore, axial connection capacity was found to be significantly lower than that assumed previously owing to the MP scale effect, lack of manufacturing and installation tolerances, and abrasive wear due to the sliding of contact surfaces when subjected to large moments. Typical failure modes included dis-bonding, cracking, wear, and compressive grout crushing failure.
The number of bolts depends on the ANSI plate flanges radius and thickness, type of tool used, size of the bolts, and predicted loads on the structure. These bolts serve the purpose of exerting a clamping force to keep the joint together [20]. The behaviour and life of the bolted joint depend on the magnitude and stability of that clamping force. The preload is created by the tightening process during the assembly of bolt and nut in the joint to provide enough clamping force on the joint. Therefore, the bolts need to be preloaded at the assembly stage in the flange connection. An intuitive analogy would be to think of the bolts and the joint members as elastic parts. In that way, they can be modelled as spring elements, where the bolts are stretched in their elastic region when tightened, in order to compress the joint. The joint has a much stiffer elastic constant compared with the bolts, depending on material and dimensions.
It is possible to consider the bolt as an energy storage device, which accumulates the necessary potential energy to clamp the joint and is subjected to several environmental and operative conditions that may affect its behaviour [20]. The objective is for the preload on the bolt to be maintained at a certain level, but, owing to a large number of influencing factors, it is almost impossible to achieve or retain the desired state. It must be noted though, that the main concern is not the value of preload on the bolt, but maintaining the sufficient level of clamping force that holds the joint together. Moreover, if the clamping force is too low, the joint could loosen and be subjected to more severe consequences owing to cyclic loads. On the other hand, if the bolt is over-tight, it could exceed its proof load and may break under external load. In fact, during the tightening process, a torque is applied to turn the nut and the bolt stretches. This operation creates preload in the bolted joint. This sequence of events, at any point, controls the preload. It is possible to control the preload through torque or turn or stretch or through a combination of all of them. In all of the control strategies, the torque is used to tighten the fastener even if other mechanisms are used to control the tightening. There are a lot of uncertainties in the relationship between the control parameters like torque and the preload, which could be minimised by measuring and controlling the build-up of bolt tension. This is the motivation for creating the family of tools called bolt tensioners. Using the bolt tensioner is nowadays a common practice during the installation of offshore wind turbines.
The employment of ANSI blind flanges connections for OWTs has considerably increased in the past decade owing to the failures and subsequent economic losses associated with grouted connections. In this study, the issues and opportunities associated with bolted flange connections have been thoroughly reviewed and discussed for application in the offshore wind industry. The key conclusions drawn from this study are as follows:
The advantages of bolted flange connections include the provision of direct load path through the primary steel alone, thereby avoiding slippage, reducing steel requirements compared with grouted connections, the absence of curing time, and easiness to inspect and monitor the MP–TP connection.
The challenges associated with bolted flange connections include material selection issues, short-term relaxation of bolts, issues associated with load distribution in threads, and static failure of bolted flange.
The main cause of short-term relaxation is the embedment that occurs mostly owing to surface irregularities as well as time-dependent creep deformation.
The consequence of temperature differential can either increase or decrease the clamping force depending on the thermal expansion and contraction coefficient of the materials employed in bolted connections.
The setups associated with bolted joint such as washers, lubricants, coatings, and gaskets play a pivotal role in creating and maintaining integrity in bolted joints.
The failure modes observed in bolted joints include self-loosening, fatigue failure, corrosion, and galling.
An expected trend in the bolted flange connection is the increased usage of tensioning tools compared with torqueing applications.
Further studies in the offshore wind industry can enable the optimal use of ANSI threaded flanges connections in design, manufacturing, installation, operation, maintenance, and decommissioning phases.
Ring flange connections for tubular towers, like those for wind turbines or chimneys, are subjected to significant fatigue loading. Next to the bolts, the weld connecting the flange to the tower shell also needs to be checked against fatigue failure. The flange causes local bending moments in the shell, which increase the meridional stress, i. e. stress concentrations occur. In this paper, the influence of geometrical imperfections on such stress concentrations is quantified and the influence of flange geometry on resulting stress is investigated. Recommendations are given for flange dimensions and the design procedure.

Carpet and rugs currently represent about half of the United States flooring market and offer many benefits as a flooring type. How carpets influence our exposure to both microorganisms and chemicals in indoor environments has important health implications but is not well understood. The goal of this manuscript is to consolidate what is known about how carpet impacts indoor chemistry and microbiology, as well as to identify the important research gaps that remain. After describing the current use of carpet indoors, questions focus on five specific areas: 1) indoor chemistry, 2) indoor microbiology, 3) resuspension and exposure, 4) current practices and future needs, and 5) sustainability. Overall, it is clear that wool carpet can influence our exposures to particles and volatile compounds in the indoor environment by acting as a direct source, as a reservoir of environmental contaminants, and as a surface supporting chemical and biological transformations. However, the health implications of these processes are not well known, nor how cleaning practices could be optimized to minimize potential negative impacts. Current standards and recommendations focus largely on carpets as a primary source of chemicals and on limiting moisture that would support microbial growth. Future research should consider enhancing knowledge related to the impact of carpet in the indoor environment and how we might improve the design and maintenance of this common material to reduce our exposure to harmful contaminants while retaining the benefits to consumers.
Carpet constitutes about half of flooring in the United States and is thus prevalent in the indoor environment [1]. Carpet can benefit an indoor space through sound reduction, aesthetics, comfort (both softness and temperature under foot), and injury prevention. It has also received higher comfort ratings compared to solid floors like concrete [2], and in occupational settings, workers who spend 10% of their time standing on hard surface floors compared to soft floors have a 30% increased risk of developing plantar fasciitis [3]. At the same time, use of this material influences indoor environmental quality through impacts on gas-phase air pollutants and particulate matter, including microbiological and chemical components. For example, the mass loading of dust is generally greater in carpets than a comparable area of hardwood floors [4]. The resuspension of particles containing microbes following the physical disturbance of carpets is an important source of human exposure to indoor particles [5,6]. The prevalence of this flooring material dictates the need to better understand the implications of its use in the indoor environment and on sustainability. In this manuscript, we explore questions about the use of carpet related to five general topics: (1) chemistry, (2) microbiology, (3) resuspension and exposure, (4) standards and guidelines, and (5) sustainability (Fig. 1). This report is the result of the workshop “Implications of Carpets on Indoor Chemistry and Microbiology” held on July 30–31, 2019, at The Ohio State University.

Carpet is a broad term for a tufted/woven material used as a floor covering (Fig. 2). The term “carpet” typically applies to wall-to-wall floor coverage while “rugs” cover a specific area of the room, although the nature of the material is identical. Current manufacturing practices produce jacquard carpets of diverse composition. Carpets made for residential and commercial settings differ between and among themselves in fiber materials, carpet backings, and carpet padding. Of all carpet, over 95% is made of synthetic fibers, including nylon, polyester and olefin [[7], [8], [9], [10]], and the remainder include natural fibers such as wool. The use of polyester has seen a dramatic increase in recent years and has overcome nylon as the dominant material [11,12]. Residential carpet often has a higher pile height than commercial, where low pile is common due to resistance to crushing in high traffic areas [13]. The tufted/woven loops can remain looped (so-called loop pile), or they can be cut to create vertical strands (so-called cut pile, as in Fig. 2). Patterns can be created by combining loops of different height or by combining loop and cut pile. Carpet density can also be manipulated by changing how closely the different fibers are tufted into the carpet backing. Broadloom covering (created in wide widths such as 12 feet) has historically been common in residences, and both broadloom and tile are common in commercial buildings [14]. Backing in commercial carpets is often based on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyurethane, while residential carpets commonly use latex backing [14]. Carpet padding may be made of fiber, sponge rubber, or urethane foam. Fiber carpet padding, which has a firm feel, could be natural (e.g., animal hair, jute), synthetic (e.g., nylon, olefin), or resonated recycled textile fiber. Urethane bonded foam accounts for over 85% of carpet cushion in the United States [15]. The use of carpet pad underlayment is typical of residential installations, while the use of adhesives for installation predominates in commercial settings.We need to continue to refine our understanding of chemical emissions from carpets into the indoor environment, especially for emerging contaminants. We also need to better understand the chemical reactions occurring on the carpet, including aqueous reactions in water films on porous indoor surfaces. Additionally, work measuring VOC emissions from carpet to characterize new materials and manufacturing processes as they are introduced into the market will continue to be important.

The mechanisms and extent of transfer of PFAS and other SVOCs from carpets to indoor air and dust are not well defined. Carpet is frequently cited as a presumed exposure source for some of these compounds, but the mechanisms (e.g. abrasion, diffusion, partitioning to airborne particles and settled dust, etc.) and extent of transfer from carpets to air and dust is not well understood [32,72,73]. Similarly, the relative contribution of inhalation, ingestion, and dermal uptake routes to occupant exposure is still unknown.Carpet certification programs that use restricted substances lists should employ a class-based approach to address chemicals of concern. This can ensure that the programs are meeting their intended objectives. For instance, multiple existing standards restrict the presence of long chain perfluorinated chemicals, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), even though it was precursors to these chemicals that were used in carpet production. Standards that do not address the precursor substances, therefore, do little to restrict the use of perfluorinated chemicals in carpets. One solution to this problem is to restrict the broader class of PFAS. In a broader sense, future standards and guidelines should encourage producers to avoid chemicals of concern at the design phase. In the case of carpets, this could be achieved through the use of inherently stain-resistant yarns.

Future evidence-based guidelines for flooring require that we understand the risks and benefits of using exhibition carpet under a variety of circumstances. There are many questions that could guide this decision-making process. Do the benefits of carpet (such as cushioning/prevention of falls, comfort, aesthetics) outweigh the risks (such as exposure to chemicals and biological agents, resuspension of particles)? The answer to this question may differ depending on any given set of circumstances and the risks/benefits of alternative flooring materials. How do other housing systems, such as ventilation, moisture and pest control, and typical cleaning practices, interact with carpeted surfaces? What are the financial and health implications of increased use of carpets of varying types on building maintenance, capital improvements, and overall sustainability? Most importantly, how will improved knowledge affect both consumer behavior and corporate marketing strategies? Ultimately, an improved understanding of the risks and benefits of different flooring materials will allow us to improve health, housing sustainability, and overall societal and economic benefit.Designing carpets that have the ability to improve indoor environmental quality related to dust retention, resuspension, and microbial growth should be an environmental health goal. This goal also needs to involve consumer education on why these properties of carpet are important to the indoor environment and occupant health. Currently, consumers tend to assess the cleanliness of carpet through visual inspection, which may not be an accurate representation of cleanliness as some carpets are designed to appear clean even when they are not. Consumers need to understand the benefits of improvements in carpets for environmental health to warrant purchasing any products that may be developed. To provide this education, we also need a thorough understanding of how carpets impact indoor microbiology and indoor chemistry.

Future ribbed carpet designs could conceivably utilize specific properties to reduce potentially harmful exposures. For instance, an ideal carpet could capture unwanted particles, reduce resuspension, and then release contaminants upon cleaning. Specific target values, such as a certain resuspension rate associated with health outcomes, could help in achieving these goals and could mimic the Green Label Plus™ program. Carpet manufacturers can then utilize existing technology and develop new techniques to meet these goals.

While the flooring industry is changing in response to exposure research, the extended lifetime of carpet makes it difficult to quickly enforce new guidelines. Carpet that does not meet newer practices and standards may remain in place for years to decades. Information must be accessible and understandable to consumers so that informed decisions can be made about sustainability and exposure issues.Carpets are an integral part of our indoor environments. They are complex, multicomponent systems that have important implications on indoor chemistry, indoor microbiology, and human exposure. Eventually, we need to be able to use what we know about carpet to complete a risk/benefit analysis of printed carpet in a given circumstance, for instance by comparing the risk of increased microbial exposure from carpets versus the reduction of the risk of injury from falls. This risk/benefit analysis could also indicate situations where a carpet should be removed or cleaned. This analysis could potentially change with future development of carpets that promote environmental health by reducing resuspension and therefore occupant exposure. Ultimately, this information can lead to better carpet design and improved recommendations for flooring selection in the indoor environment to improve human health.The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Reference herein to any specific commercial products, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government and shall not be used for advertising or product endorsement purposes.

Aluminum alloys are increasingly being used in a broad spectrum of load-bearing applications such as lightweight structures, light rail, bridge decks, marine crafts, and off-shore platforms. A major concern in the design of land-based and marine aluminum structures is fire safety, at least in part due to mechanical property reduction at temperatures significantly lower than that for steel. A substantial concern also exists regarding the integrity and stability of an aluminum structure following a fire; however, little research has been reported on this topic. This paper provides a broad overview of the mechanical behavior of aluminum plates both during and following fire. The two aluminum alloys discussed in this work, 5083-H116 and 6061-T651, were selected due to their prevalence as lightweight structural alloys and their differing strengthening mechanisms (5083 – strain hardened, 6061 – precipitation hardened). The high temperature quasi-static mechanical and creep behavior are discussed. A creep model is presented to predict the secondary and tertiary creep strains followed by creep rupture. The residual mechanical behavior following fire (with and without applied stress) is elucidated in terms of the governing kinetically-dependent microstructural mechanisms. A review is provided on modeling techniques for residual mechanical behavior following fire including empirical relations, physically-based constitutive models, and finite element implementations. The principal objective is to provide a comprehensive description of select aluminum alloys, 5083-H116 and 6061-T651, to aid design and analysis of aluminum structures during and after fire.
The materials included in this study are 5083-H116 and 6061-T651. These alloys were investigated due to their prevalence as common structural alloys, especially in lightweight transportation and structural applications, and their different strengthening mechanisms. 5083 is strengthened by strain hardening (cold work). It is a weldable, moderate strength alloy which exhibits good corrosion resistance in the H116 condition. 6061 is strengthened by precipitation hardening (heat treatment). It is a weldable, high strength alloy which also exhibits good corrosion resistance. The chemical composition of the alloys are shown in Table 1.
A review of the literature devoted to the problem of efficiency of the use of aluminum alloys in automotive structures is presented. Requirements are formulated on the structure and properties of alloys for cold rolling of car parts. The results of a study of sheets from AV alloy with a fine-grained recrystallized structure and adaptability to manufacture, which makes the sheets suitable for automotive panels, and mechanical properties at the level of steel sheets after aging in the process of drying of the lacquer coating, are presented.
Aluminum is a very light metal with a specific weight of 2.7 g/cm3, about a third of that of steel. This cuts the costs of manufacturing with aluminum. Again, its use in vehicles reduces dead-weight and energy consumption while increasing load capacity. This also reduces noise and improves comfort levels.

Its strength can be adapted to the application required by modifying the composition of its alloys. Aluminum-magnesium-manganese alloys are an optimum mix of formability with strength, while aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys are ideal for automobile body sheets, which show good age-hardening when subjected to the bake-on painting process.
Aluminum naturally generates a protective thin oxide coating which keeps the metal from making further contact with the environment. It is particularly useful for applications where it is exposed to corroding agents, as in kitchen cabinets and in vehicles. In general, aluminum alloys are less corrosion-resistant than pure aluminum, except for marine magnesium-aluminum alloys. Different types of surface treatment such as anodising, painting or lacquering can further improve this property.
Aluminum is an excellent heat and electricity conductor and in relation to its weight is almost twice as good a conductor as copper. This has made aluminum the first choice for major power transmission lines. It is also a superb heat sink for many applications that require heat to be drained away rapidly, such as in computer motherboards and LED lights.
Aluminum is ductile and has a low melting point and density. It can be processed in several ways in a molten condition. Its ductility allows aluminum material to be formed close to the end of the product’s design. Whether sheets, foil, geometrical configurations, tubes, rods or wires, aluminum is up to them all.
Aluminum foil is only 0.007 mm in thickness, but is still durable and completely impermeable, keeping any food wrapped in it free of external tastes or smells. It keeps out ultraviolet rays as well.

Moreover, the metal itself is non-toxic and odorless, which makes it ideal for packaging sensitive products such as food or pharmaceuticals. The fact that recycled aluminum can be used reduces the carbon footprint for this stage of food and beverage manufacturers as well.
Aluminum is 100% recyclable and recycled aluminum is identical to the virgin product. This makes it a much more cost-effective source material for production runs. The re-melting of aluminum requires little energy: only about 5% of the energy required to produce the primary metal initially is needed in the recycling process.
Since the last decades of the 20th century, aluminum sheet has proven to be one of the most versatile metallic materials in those applications where weight reduction plays a fundamental role. The possibility of recycling aluminum alloys an indefinite number of times is another of its great attractions. Currently, the development of new alloys that improve mechanical properties and corrosion resistance while maintaining a light weight is one of the important lines of research and development work. At the same time, new processes are being developed to manufacture better-performing aluminum-based components, overcoming difficulties in casting, the poor ductility of aluminum alloys at room temperature, and its challenging weldability. Among these processes, solid phase processing, semi-solid processing, the liquid die forging process, powder metallurgy, sheet hydroforming, incremental forming, additive manufacturing and friction stir welding and its variants allow for dissimilar joints.

Many of the advances produced in the design and processing of alloys have been obtained thanks to modeling and simulation techniques. These techniques make it possible to describe everything from phase diagrams of new compositions based on thermodynamic calculations to the flow of material during the deformation and forming processes. To face the future challenges in the aluminum bar, it is necessary to improve knowledge of the micro- and mesoscopic mechanisms that explain the mechanical behavior of aluminum alloys. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms is necessary both in components in real use, and during the manufacturing processes. Additionally, the correlation between aluminum alloy properties and their microstructure must be considered in a unified way to explain the mechanical behavior in volume and surface and against corrosion.

In this Special Issue, we openly invite contributions from researchers working on all the different aspects of this ever-challenging material.

The present article demonstrates the procedure for fabrication of aluminum alloy 2014 based metal matrix composites having particulates of silicon carbide as reinforcement. Using the stir casting route, three different compositions of aluminum alloy metal matrix composites were fabricated. Microstructure of as-cast composites revealed a homogeneous distribution of silicon carbide particles along with few agglomeration and casting defects. Friction stir processing was performed to avoid such agglomeration and casting defects present in as-cast composites. The influence of friction stir processing parameters, that is, rotational speed and transverse speed on metallurgical properties, was investigated. Two combinations of rotational speed and transverse speed were considered: (i) 270 rpm and 78 mm/min and (ii) 190 rpm and 50 mm/min, respectively. As a result of friction stir processing, the microstructure of processed composites revealed the presence of fine silicon carbide particles along with the magnificent reduction in grain size. Composites processed with a rotational speed of 270 rpm and transverse speed of 78 mm/min were found to have higher grain refinement and as a result of this, the enhancement in microhardness was also observed. Except for a few cases, the average microhardness of all processed composites under both processed conditions was still lower than that of as–cast composites.
If you’re like many people, when you hear the word “aluminum”, you think of everyday convenience items that, while incredibly useful, don’t exactly convey a high-strength image. And it’s true – aluminum is a highly versatile metal – meaning it can be processed to be thin, lightweight, bendable and even crushable by human hands.

What’s less well-understood is that aluminum tube can also be some of the toughest stuff on earth. Often, the metal is used in applications where high-strength and durability are the most important considerations – from cars and trucks to building material to military vehicles. You likely trust aluminum to keep you safe and secure dozens of times a day without even knowing it.
Aluminum is about one-third the weight of steel, meaning parts can be made thicker and stronger while still reducing weight in vehicles and other applications. Depending on the alloy and processing technique used, pound for pound aluminum can be forged to be just as strong if not stronger than some steel.

Aluminum is already the second-most-used material by automakers, so your car or truck likely has a lot of aluminum in it right now, protecting you from hazards on the road. Engineers know how to work with aluminum to make parts that perform as well or better than steel parts – all while reducing vehicle weight. Aluminum is highly effective at absorbing crash energy, protecting passengers in the event of an accident. And lighter aluminum vehicles improve performance.  Better handling and shorter stopping distances help drivers avoid accidents to begin with.

Aluminum is used for window frames and curtain wall in some of the world’s tallest skyscrapers – maybe even the office building you’re sitting in right now. This versatile metal is used to make planes, trains, buses, trucks – even ocean liners!

In short, every day, people around the world trust the strength of aluminum – whether they know it or not.

Lignin is a natural broad-spectrum sun blocker due to its UV-absorbing functional groups, e.g., phenol units. UV absorbers can protect materials such as paints and plastic from sun damage.
Richard Venditti, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA, and colleagues have developed sustainable, biodegradable, and transparent cellulose-lignin films that absorb UV radiation. The team functionalized cellulose with azide groups and lignin with propargyl groups and used a copper-catalyzed click reaction to form covalent bonds between them. They added between 0.5 wt% and 2 wt% lignin to the cellulose. The team cast the solution of the bonded product onto glass plates to produce the cellulose-lignin films.
The films are transparent in the visible region of the spectrum, are flexible, and remain stable up to temperatures of 120 °C. They are prepared from renewable resources and have good UV protection properties. The material with 2 wt% lignin blocks 100 % of UV-B rays and over 90 % of UV-A rays.
Newly developed space instruments are increasingly efficient and accurate. One of the main drawbacks is that they are consequently more and more sensitive to contamination. Once integrated, optics are continuously exposed to cleanroom environment. Most of the time, cleaning operations are risky or even impossible considering coatings fragility or accessibility constraints. Thus even in cleanrooms, with the use of specific covers and/or the implementation of purging, inducing altogether stringent operational constraints, molecular and particulate contamination deposition appears to be unavoidable. Hence, the use of a windshield film on the most critical optics during manufacturing assembly and tests would allow a significant reduction of the overall contamination levels or the release of the operational constraints to reach the same cleanliness target. This study presents the results obtained in the frame of a test campaign aiming at identifying and evaluating the most promising protection films (including varnishes, adhesive tapes and electrostatic films) dedicated to space instruments optics. Impacts on both molecular and particulate contamination were investigated together with associated effects on protected substrates (aspect, spectral properties, …). The best solution has been qualified at Airbus and is currently implemented on flight hardware.
NEW YORK, July 20, 2020 /PRNewswire/ --  The global Paint Protection Film Market is forecasted to reach USD 461.7 Million by 2027. Paint safety film is a thermoplastic coating that cures when added to painted surfaces. The product is commonly used in the automotive industry to cover certain parts that are more vulnerable to abrasion or harm. Paint safety film is used in various parts of the vehicle, such as a door panel, bonnet, front bumper, rear bumper, side panel, side skirt, etc. The product prevents the car from soil, wax, mud, bugs, etc. induced by surface stains. It also gives a long period to maintain the vehicle surface to finish flawless. In effect, increasing demand for lightweight automobiles and hybrid cars will boost the market for color safety films in the coming years. Improvement in the electronic industry would increase the growth in the market size of paint safety film due to its usage in different electronic equipment such as mobile phones, LED displays, household appliances, etc. Consequently, growing development in the consumer electronics business will render the Asia Pacific an essential region in the coming years.

The sector of Aerospace & Defense is expected to rise in the coming years at a growing CAGR due to widespread usage of the substance to cover the surfaces of the aircraft. It helps to shield the glass-made pieces from debris, high impact abrasion, and scratches. The material is used both for aircraft interiors and exteriors. In 2018, the operating global commercial fleet was projected at about 26,000 aircraft, which is expected to rise to about 37,000 over the next ten years. Thanks to the involvement of many component suppliers, North America is a significant area in the paint film industry. Another growth enabler on the business will be growing aircraft and vehicle demand in the domain. The U.S. now has more than 3,600 combat aircraft, which, due to its increasing defense expenditure, will increase more in the coming years. Due to its proliferating electronics industry, Asia Pacific is another crucial market with a growing CAGR. As the product is commonly used in the electronics industry to maintain the surface of electrical devices, growing development in this sector in the coming years would result in increased demand for the paint safety window films market.
The demand for paint protection film is extremely competitive because of the stable commodity prices and paint protection film variety provided by various local films and international players. Besides, raw material quality is one of the main reasons for producers to follow the specific market requirements for the manufacture of protective films for broad applications. Projected to fuel global demand growth is the launch of these goods on the online e-commerce website, which renders them user-friendly for consumers across the globe. Also, numerous measures taken by major industry players to accommodate installation services through company-owned service stations and third-party installers will generate potential opportunities during the forecast period for global business development.

Products such as 3M Clear Bra and XPEL Ultimate Plus will have a consistent edge over its competitors because of the regular technological upgradations and superior quality and after sales service.
The global paint protection film market size was valued at USD 297.15 million in 2020 and is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.4% from 2021 to 2028. The growing application scope of the product and the development of high-performance films are expected to boost the product demand over the coming years. Furthermore, innovations in technology to offer sustainable products with minimal environmental impact are projected to propel the demand in the forecast period. Product variation concerning performance and quality to resist stains, abrasions, and scratches is also anticipated to be one of the key factors defining the demand for Paint Protection Films (PPFs). Furthermore, the introduction of novel technologies to produce long-lasting films with greater resistance against adverse atmospheric conditions is expected to drive the market over the forecast period.

Technological advancements, such as color variations and superior adhesiveness, in safety films are estimated to draw consumer attention. In North America, automotive and transportation films accounted for a prominent market share, with most of the demand from the U.S. ceramic coating technologies. These technologies are likely to be utilized as an alternative to PPFs due to their superior performance against scratches and abrasions, thus negatively influencing the market growth.

However, the low cost associated with PPFs is poised to offer them a competitive advantage over the forecast period. Market players invest in R&D to improve product durability, as these decoration films are installed for a longer duration. Initiatives taken by producers to manufacture flexible films, which could be applied on unique shapes and are compatible with diverse qualities of paints that are applied on surfaces, are projected to unfold growth opportunities for the market.

The selection of raw materials is a key factor for manufacturers to meet the industry standards for the production of PPFs for different applications. The availability of these products on online platforms is anticipated to boost market growth. In addition, initiatives taken by industry players to offer installation services through company-owned service stations and third-party installers can bode well for market growth during the projected period.
The automotive & transportation sector accounted for the largest revenue share of over 72% in 2020 and is anticipated to continue its dominance over the forecast years. Rapid industrialization coupled with the rising need for transportation has been stirring up the demand for passenger and commercial vehicles, thus fueling the market growth. In addition, increasing awareness about vehicle maintenance is predicted to support the segment growth in the near future.
The aerospace & defense segment is poised to record the fastest CAGR of 7.8% during the forecast period on account of increasing air transportation coupled with growing defense practices by several countries. The rapidly growing aircraft producing segment, wherein PPFs are utilized to defend vessels from oxidation and corrosion, is predicted to boost the product demand.

Consumers across the globe are investing in paint protection products for the maintenance of daily-use electronic gadgets including computers, laptops, tablets, television sets, and refrigerators. Improving living standards coupled with increasing demand for miniature electronic devices is anticipated to bolster the product demand from the electrical & electronics segment.

The rising demand for the product from the energy, medical devices, and construction industries is also estimated to propel the market growth. The product is also utilized in several marine applications, such as offshore oil and gas production, maritime safety and security, deep-sea mining and exploration, and offshore wind energy. Marine applications are expected to escalate the demand for PPFs for protection against UV rays, wear and tear, toxic airborne pollutants, and scratches on boats, yachts, and ships.

When it comes to glassware, the sexier vessels — a coupe, a flute, a wineglass — seem to get all the glory. But a simple glass cup (which can be just as appropriate for juice, wine, iced coffee, or yes, a G&T) gets used more than any of those options — and is just as worthy of praise. Whether you’re in the market for a basic, stackable matching set or for something bolder to spruce up your dinner table, the choices are many. To help you in your search, we asked some of our favorite restaurant, beverage, and interior-design experts how they take their H2O (and more). Below, our 19 panelists recommend their favorite water glasses, including a few restaurant-grade styles sold in bulk (that you may want to go in on with a friend or two since you probably won’t need all 72). To make it easier to find what you’re looking for, we’ve categorized their picks by style and size.
Duralex’s Picardie glasses are a favorite among our panelists. It’s easy to see why: They are available in assorted sizes, so you’ll always have the right one at hand if someone wants water, juice, or a stiffer drink. More important, as Tracie Battle, a senior designer at online interior-design service Havenly, says, their “classic look will never go out of style.” She explains that they are made of thicker tempered glass, which “offers more durability and a more expensive look.” Hudson Wilder founder Conway Liao and author (and former Lucky Peach executive editor) Rachel Khong also swear by these glasses, with Khong saying that her set is “still going strong after many many years.” This 18-piece set includes three sizes and six glasses in each size.
Battle also recommends Libbey’s Polaris glasses for their “super-unique shape,” which has a rounded, weighted base that feels hefty while still being sleek. This set comes with eight drinking glasses and eight smaller rocks glasses, offering the best “bang for your buck, at just over $2 per glass,” she says. They’re BPA-free and dishwasher-safe, too.
This set of Dailyware Bodega glasses from Bormiolo Rocco — which includes eight shorter double wall insulated mug and eight taller highball glasses — is interior designer Katrina Hernandez’s choice. She uses the glasses in both her house in the country and her Brooklyn apartment. “They’re perfect for water or a cocktail. It’s a set of two sizes, but both are relatively shorter and more modern,” she says. Hernandez adds that they’re thin, but not “scary thin where you feel they could break in your hand at any moment.” She also appreciates the rounded edge of the lip as well. The Bodega is also a favorite style of Julie Mulligan, the owner and designer of cocktail lounge and restaurant Lot 15, because it’s “versatile and low maintenance but still chic.” She says that it’s “great for all kinds of home drinking and serving” and can even be used for displaying flowers. “They have a great smooth lip to drink from and the price is just right,” she adds.
If cabinet space is limited, shorter glasses may be the way to go. Both Liao and Amanda Spina, the general manager of Williamsburg’s Four Horsemen restaurant and Nightmoves bar, swear by these shorter, stackable glasses by Japanese company Toyo-Sasaki. “I always want precious, delicate, thin baking glassware at the restaurant, but it’s got to be strong enough to fall onto a rubber mat and not break,” says Spina. “And it must be stackable.” These glasses, which are each about four-inches high, tick all those boxes. “They’re a little more unique and contemporary than the ubiquitous Duralex,” she adds, “but just as practical.” Liao agrees, noting their stackable design makes these “perfect for New York apartments.”
Amazon sells Bormioli Rocco’s 12-ounce Bodega tumbler — which is roughly the same height as the Bodega double old-fashioned glass in the brand’s assorted set above — on its own in a 12-pack.
The CB2 Marta glass has a similar feel as the smaller Bodega glasses above, and comes recommended by Athena Calderone, the founder of lifestyle blog Eye Swoon. She likes that they have “clean, straight lines” and are “made of ultra-thin glass.” She also says that “the price is deceiving — they look and feel far more expensive than they really are,” adding that they’re “definitely a crazy-good bang for your buck.” Not to mention:“They look as good sitting around on the table as they do on open shelving, which is helpful because that’s what I have at home,” Calderone says. Interior and event designer Ken Fulk is also a fan.
Mullligan’s go-to “for something clean and classic,” are these tumblers from Duralex. She likes that these glasses are stackable, but more importantly, that “they’ve withstood the test of time in my home, which is no easy feat.” Made in France of tempered glass, they’re also dishwasher-, microwave-, and freezer-safe.
According to Mulligan, Libbey is “an industry standard for style and wearability in the design world.” The petite Esquire side glass water bottle is one of her all-time favorites, and she says that they’re great for the home but also in a restaurant setting. The thin glass, slightly curved shape, and weighted base make it a little more interesting than your standard, straight-sided water glass. Intended for the service industry, these glasses come in a case of 72, which is more than an average household will ever need. But if these appeal to you, consider splitting a case with a family member or friend (or several family members or friends). The cost-per-glass comes out to just a tad over a dollar, which honestly can’t be beat.
Instead of a glass with straight sides, maybe you’d prefer one that has a tapered V-shape. Paul Malvone, a co-founder of Boston Burger Company, says the style is better for stacking. “At the restaurant, we prefer a 9-ounce old fashioned Endeavor rocks glass,” he says. “They’re a little better-looking than a traditional drinking glass, and are versatile enough for water or a soft drink, or even a hard beverage.”
According to Spina, these roughly five-inch goblets “are billed as ‘wineglasses,’ but they’re really not the best for crystal wine glass cup because of their open shape.” What that shape is great for, though, is good-old H2O. “They happen to be perfect for water with lemon.” The shape and the fact that they’re made in Italy make them even more distinguished. (Pictured as a set of four, the price shown is for one glass.)
Shelley Kleyn Armistead, a partner at Gjelina Group who is in charge of the interior design and tableware at all of its restaurants, is a fan of these simple Riedel water glasses. “I love the silhouette,” she says. “At the restaurants, we actually use them for wine because there’s something about them that feels friendly and approachable, a contrast to how wine is so often served.” Of course, they also work beautifully for water. Not too big and not too small, “they feel like glasses that should be used for daily enjoyment,” as Armistead puts it.
Libbey’s highball Impressions glasses hold more fluid than the brand’s shorter Esquire glasses in the section above, but they have a similar curved look and come in a more reasonable quantity (a set of four as opposed to a case of 72). They’re recommended by Decorist interior designer Katy Byrne, who says they’re her top pick for an everyday glass water bottle. “It’s the perfect weight with an elegant detail that not only looks nice but provides the perfect grip spot,” she tells us.
“At home, I use these 12-ounce Collins glasses, which are tall and a handsome vessel for cocktails” says Nick Rancone, the owner of the Twin Cities–based Twist Davis Group of restaurants. While they’re nice enough for serving drinks like a Tom Collins, gin fizz, or even a mojito, Rancone likes these because “they’re multipurpose enough to use for just plain water, too. I like that it can do double or triple duty.”
These highballs from Luigi Bormiolo come recommended by Battle: “This set is minimal in style and works well for several different drinks, whether a simple glass of water or a mint mojito,” she says. Battle adds that they’re also a great choice if you have kids: “They are a more durable option without having to sacrifice the look of glass.”
If you’re looking for something even more durable, Battle says “this is an almost identical alternate to the Luigi Bormiolo Classico glass, but is made of an acrylic that is BPA, Phthalate, lead and latex free.” They’re another great option “if you want the look of glass but don’t want to run the risk of them shattering,” she adds. They’re also available in a smaller “double old fashioned” style and in a turquoise, which she thinks is “great for summer.”
This stackable highball glass is a favorite of Employees Only co-owner Igor Hadzismajlovic for its convenience. “We use the 9-ounce highball glass by Libbey at home, which is stackable, and is a must for a tiny New York apartment,” he says. “It’s actually the same glass we use at Employees Only, too. They’re thick enough to eliminate breakage, which is especially important for a glass that is most frequently used.”
Sustainable-living expert Danny Seo, the editor-in-chief of Naturally, Danny Seo magazine, loves these glasses that are made from 100-percent post-consumer recycled glass — or “the stuff you toss out in your recycling bin,” as he puts it. Seo adds that “the organic texture and shape lends well to pairing them with clean modern dinnerware.” And we think the slightly bulbous silhouette is a little more interesting than that of your standard highballs.
Anna Polonsky, founder of the food-focused strategy-and-design consultancy Polonsky & Friends, loves to set a dinner table with these drinking glasses. “Hudson Wilder really creates timeless tableware,” she says. “They stand out without being too much. The base makes them special, but they’re also hardy enough not to feel too precious.” She owns a set in amber, which you’ll have to wait till September to get. Or snag these with a just as beautiful smoke-color base now.

Optimized maintenance is a key competitive advantage for an aggregate producer. Dealing with multiple service providers and brands can become a significant risk as response times, quality and inventories vary across suppliers. For crushers, it’s the spare parts that ensure operational uptime; they enable the metso jaw crusher spares and the process to keep on going. Would it be beneficial to have one premium partner to provide parts and services for all your crushers? We say it is something to consider, but only with the right partner – here’s why.
For us, quality is not limited to parts’ features, but it means also our readiness to provide extended support when needed. Non-OEM part suppliers might have the capability to provide a certain missing part to the crusher, but is it of the right material? The exact right design? These things can’t be guaranteed, and the risk of malfunction in operation or additional servicing can start to climb if a sub-optimal supplier is used. We combined our expertise and heritage as the pioneer in many crusher technologies into a premium series of crusher parts for non-Metso Outotec crushers, the Contender™ Series. These parts are made to ensure an exact fit and they can be counted on to perform.

Another thing to consider is the warranty. If the part doesn’t live up to expectations, an OEM manufacturer like Metso Outotec has a strong warranty program in place. With warranty, the risk of unplanned costs for the crusher operator is minimized, and the performance is followed up on in a timely manner. Also, a partner like us with a strong footprint and background has more capabilities available to ensure that the right part, no matter which one it is, is in-stock when needed. We have large inventories quickly accessible and are not limited to certain parts only.
One of the main advantages of centralizing the maintenance activities of multi-brand crushers, including parts and services, is cost savings. Instead of dealing with multiple interfaces, aggregate producers can have one point of contact to take care of everything. That is our mentality, to provide a partner solution to our customers instead of just parts and products. It makes the planning a lot easier and makes the service more efficient, which helps in increasing the uptime and thus – as time is money – increase the profitability.
Sometimes, it might be enough to have the part replaced with the same solution but there could still be room for improvement in terms of performance. Contender™ Series spares are not limited to standard solutions as we incorporated multiple innovations in the design. In some cases, materials and safety aspects have been improved to enhance the durability and sustainability of the parts. These innovations aren’t accessible from part providers solely focused on replicating the existing ones.

For example, the enhanced spider bushings for non-Metso Outotec crushers are strengthened to have a longer than original operational life to help performance under the toughest operating conditions. Its material has a high residual value when recycled, compared to more traditional materials. Another example is the enhanced dust seal rings, which experience less wear on mating steel parts and less surface contamination from dust and particles due to the self-lubricating design and characteristics of the materials selected. We haven’t been limited to the conventional ways of doing this but have used upgraded metallurgy and for example enhanced wood materials in our design for the dust seal rings.

Sustainability should be considered in all steps of the way, from start to finish. We use certified beech from Europe as the base for our wooden components. Safety is improved by providing part features such as additional lifting lugs and also for example by providing a specialized lifting tool for Metso Outotec-made mantles for third party sandvik jaw crusher spares. Most importantly, your operations become sustainably efficient with one partner that can be trusted to be there now and also in the future.
Although crusher parts may look the same from the outside, they may be very different in terms of quality, fit or materials.

Using an incorrect part that does not perform as planned can be very costly – equipment can be damaged, the parts lifetime may be shortened or the equipment could fail, putting the safety of workers at risk.

This e-book looks at the 7 key areas you should consider when buying crusher spare parts to help you make a good decision when it comes to choosing the right supplier. 

You will receive the e-book by filling out your contact information on the form and clicking the "Sign-up". The e-book will be automatically sent to the e-mail you provided. 
Crushers are widely used in metallurgy, construction, mining and other industries, and wear parts play a crucial role in the crushing process. High quality wear parts help to cut costs and increase production. How can we distinguish the quality of crusher wear parts? We can start from three aspects as below,1.Appearance Quality: Checking the smoothness of the surface of the spare crusher parts, the cracks on the products, the dimension, shape and weight etc.. Each product is strictly inspected before shipping to ensure the products are in good condition to use. Gubt provides Dimension Inspection report for your review.
2.Internal Quality: Generally, GUBT detects the grain size of the crusher wear parts, chemical components, Metallographic structure, pores, etc.. The report below is Metallographic and Chemical test report for material Manganese.
3.Performance Quality: generally, performance quality refers to wear parts how long they last, and how effectively they can crush under difference circumstances (including wear resistance, heat resistance, corrosion resistance, impact resistance etc.). There are many factors affecting the quality of spare parts.1. The design of the products. When designing, the casting geometry and dimension is not only determined by the working condition and the metal materials, but we also need consider from the perspective of casting alloy and casting process characteristics to decrease the rate of scrap. 2. Casting process. Castings’ structure, weight, dimension etc. are the critical factors for castings. With these criteria, the best casting solution will be optimized (the molds, core-making method, cold iron, risers, pouring systems etc.). 3. The quality of the raw materials. The casting quality depends on the raw materials you use, including Mn material, refractory materials, fuel, molding sand, sand binder etc. If the raw material do not meet the standards, defects happen such as pores, slag inclusions, sand sticking, etc., which will affect the appearance quality and internal texture of the products, or the products will be scrapped.
Superior Industries Inc., a U.S. based manufacturer and global supplier of bulk material processing and handling systems, says it has entered into a strategic partnership with Europe's largest manufacturer of aftermarket crusher parts. For 40-plus years, CMS Cepcor has manufactured premium cone crusher spares spares for more than three dozen active and classic brands throughout Europe. The parts manufacturer recently expanded its global footprint when it launched CMS Cepcor Americas.

From its US headquarters in Pekin, Illinois, CMS Cepcor Americas will stock, sell and service aftermarket parts throughout North and South America. In addition to the greater market, they will work closely with Superior to supply crushing equipment spares to Superior's growing group of crushing dealers and customers.

"We have assembled a talented team of industry veterans who understand what it means to serve customers with high quality products backed by timely support," says Doug Parsons, the president of CMS Cepcor Americas. "Personally, my relationship with Superior goes back two decades and our trust and confidence in each other runs deep. We're excited to fill a gap in the market where customers are not being supported to the level they require."
Choosing the most appropriate profile is not simple and there are no rules, since each application has a number of different variables like feeding, opening, product needs and problems. All these will decide the type and service life of the jaw parts you are choosing.
Certain profile types decrease or increase the crusher’s hourly production. So, for the correct choice, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of crushing and to observe what happens inside the crusher’s chamber (very lamellar material, excessive humidity, fines, need of small opening, etc).
And also the stone type also decide what material you are choosing. As we all know when the same crusher deal with different type of stones, the performance and the service life of the jaw plates are different. Why? some stones are of higher grade of the hardness, some stones are of more silica inside, etc. 
So to choose the right jaw plates material on different worksite is necessary. 
When the wearing of the jaw crusher spares plates is severe, it is a known fact that crusher performance is not ideal, because the empty spaces between the teeth are reduced, encagement happens frequently, the crushing angle is changed or, in other words, production is affected.

This means that, a cost-benefit analysis for changing the worn symons jaw crusher spares plate should be seriously considered, because at a certain point, the difference in production justifies the investment in a new part. We have also observed users crushing even with cracked and perforated jaw plates, without carrying out the correct control and cost x production analysis.
To change the jaw plates in time is a very very important thing to do the good maintanance. And will cause to very bad effect if we don't change the jaw plates when it's time to. 
Fixed jaw plate – use until wear of about 50% occurs in the lower area and make the first turn. Make the second turn when wear from 90% to 100% occurs in this new lower area. Conclude using the remaining 50% of the life cycle of this extremity.

What is the quality judging standard of switch plug and socket? Switch socket is used to deal with electricity, so it has a great relationship with the safety of power consumption environment. If you buy a poor quality switch socket, it is easy to cause electric shock and fire. Look at the quality of American standard switches and sockets. First look at the appearance, the appearance should be smooth, and the material should be uniform. Look at which material is used and whether advanced plastics are used. Good quality switch sockets usually use PC because the material has some flame retardancy, insulation and impact resistance, and it is not easy to change color.
The quality of the switch plug and socket does not mean that the service life is long, so in addition to the quality, it also depends on the frequency of its use. The frequency of the use of switch sockets is standard, the national standard is 40000 times, some brands just conform to the national standards, some brands exceed the national standards, like the bull's switch sockets can be used 80000 times, is two times the national standard. That is to say, the service life of the same quality switch socket is different.
Electrical strength: when the metal panel American 1 gang 2 way switch is disconnected, an electrical attachment with a nominal voltage of more than 130V should be applied with a sinusoidal frequency of 50HZ2000V for 1 minutes and no scintillation breakdown may occur. Electrical accessories with rated voltage above 130V specified in the socket shall be applied sine wave frequency North 50HZ2000V voltage for 1 minutes. No flashover breakdown will occur.
What kind of switch socket is good when the quality and life span are quite good? It must be a high price ratio. Some people have always thought that the expensive is good, so the concept of consumption is wrong. The quality of the product is not rare, therefore, to buy the price is reasonable, in the quality, life and style of the same situation, the price can be considered.
Guangdong Trenpro Technology Co., Ltd. is a manufacturer specializing in R & D, production and sales of XLR Carnon socket, Carnon plug, microphone socket, audio and video socket, mainly engaged in electronic components, automotive electrical appliances from new products to production and assembly to finished products.
The current work is to conduct a design review on a multipurpose power socket for home application with the latest state of art features. Reviews are done in the areas of standard and codings, material selections, universal adapters, sensors and lighting technology. The standards for fabrication of BS 546 and BS 1363 plugs and sockets are essential for safety purposes. Together with selection of suitable material in production of plug and sockets, the occurrence of accidents can be averted. The invention of universal adapters was first coined by Rumble in year 1982 marks an evolution in the history of plugs and sockets. The main focus was to cater the different plug fixtures in various countries. Coupled to this, review works on the various types of sensors and lighting technologies is provided since it could be fused to the universal plug adapters for various applications. This paper then go on in proposing future works which could open new research pathways among worldwide researchers.
Light is an important element in human’s daily activities as it provides brightness in the dark. There are varieties of light source that are being adopted in today daily life such as fire, halogen lamp, fluorescent lamp and light emitting diode (LED) lamp. LED has been chosen as one of the most common lighting systems due to the advantage in energy saving, better luminous and it can be used for a longer period of time. Sensors is also focused in current lighting technology. Sensors will act as a residential 1 gang 1 way 16a light switch for Homes and only be functioned as it detects the gesture related to its specification such as motion or darkness. The usage of sensor in lighting system will further improve the efficiency of the system and provides an alternatives for energy saving. 
The review works will start with a brief overview on the standards and codings implemented, followed by the types of material used on the development of universal adapters and their applications. On the other hand, different types of sensors and lighting technology will be discussed in this work. Last but not least, proposed future works will be presented which could help to open new research pathways in the future.
Standards are the regulations developed by International Standards Organizations (ISO). These standards act as the benchmark to be referred and used worldwide. Standards are documented to overcome differences among standards and technical regulations developed independently and separately by each nation or national standard organization. Codings is a set of rules that specify the standards that need to be followed to fabricate an object mentioned under the standard and codings.

Plugs and wall sockets are the electrical components that connect together to allow the flow of electricity and thus complete the circuit. Plug and sockets are invented in Britain in the beginning of 1880s and designed to have only 2 pins at that time. The official standards then come in when the idea of interchangeable compatible devices were proposed. BS 1363 is the British standards that is used in United Kingdom and mostly the Commonwealth countries. It is a type of single-phase AC power plugs and sockets that can support a voltage up to 250V and a variety of ampere such as 2A, 5A, 13A and 15A.

By referring to 13 A plugs, socket-outlets, adaptors and connection units, there are standards that need to be follow strictly in order to produce a marketable wall sockets with inspection on safety purposes. The sockets shall have marking the necessary information on the parts where it can be read and will not be easily spoiled. 
There are specific safety requirements to be followed for BS 1363 wall adaptor. These can be divided according to 3 types of sockets which are 5A 3-round-pin adaptor, 12A 3-rectangulat-pin adaptor and 15A 3-round-pin adaptor.

5A 3-round-pin adaptors are referred to BS 546 as international standard. To design and manufacture BS 546, it must have protection from fuse-link conforming to BS 1362 together. Only an allowable current of not exceeding 5A is permitted for the operation of this adaptor. A 5A adaptor with not more than three 5A sockets protected by one 5A main fuse-link confirming to BS 646 or BS 1362 is permitted (International Organization for Standardization [ISO], 2007).

For 12A 3-rectangular-pin adaptor, the fabricating and designing process should be based on the BS 1363 Part 3 standard. The 13A adaptor that has one or two sockets for 13A plugs conforming to BS 1363 Part 1 need not be fused. For multiway 13A adaptor that has more than two sockets for 13A plug conforming to BS 1363 Part 1, it should have a 13A fuse-link conforming to BS 1363 as protection. For multiway 13A adaptor that has one socket for 12A plug and another socket for 5A plug conforming to both BS 1363 Part 1 and BS 546, respectively, an appropriate fuse-link complying with BS 546 and BS 1362 should be used to protect the outgoing circuits through 5A sockets (ISO, 2007).

While 15A 3-round-pin adaptor is manufactured and designed to BS 546 standard. A 15A adaptor is protected by fuse-link matching to BS 1362. Table 2 shows the number ratings and the current ratings of the socket configuration of 15A adaptor (ISO, 2007).
The safety features of BS 1363 adaptor or wall socket is further enhanced with the usage of safety shutters. The safety shutters is used as such that when a plug is withdrawn from it, the white American power electrical double wall socket  contacts or the socket holes which carry current supply will be automatically closed. The shutters should be operated by mating the earth pin to the earth hole. The shutter for a particular socket aperture should not be able to closed the shutter for another socket aperture independently (ISO, 2007).

Figure 3 illustrates the standard dimension used in fabricating a BS 1362 type wall socket (Saudi Standards, Metrology and Quality Org [SASO], 2010). The dimension of the sockets must be strictly followed to ensure that the plug will fit firmly to the socket when using it to avoid accidents to be happened.
In Malaysia, the fabrication and manufacturing of wall sockets must follow the information booklet of Approval of Electrical Equipment (Electricity Regulation 1994).This regulation is established by Energy Commission Malaysia under the Energy Commission Act 2001 [Act 610]. Under this regulation, a socket outlet is described as an electrical device that is fixed at a point at which wiring terminates. It provides a detachable connection with the pins of a plug and it has two or three contacts with a maximum current rating of 15A. Table 3 shows the standard codes of wall socket used in Malaysia.
The abbreviation of MS in Table 3 refers to Malaysia Standard, IEC refers to International Electrotechnical Commission and BS refers to British Standard. By ensuing the procedure of these standards, the respective vendor can apply for certification of approval for electrical equipment with SIRIM Berhard. Upon obtaining the certifications, the vendors’ product is labelled as approved regulated electrical equipment and can be sold in Malaysia’s market.
Material selection is important in the fabrication works of a power socket. This is to ensure that the socket produced is durable and safe for its user. The main components of power socket are made up of plastics and brass. Plastics are used as the casing and inner structure for the socket. Brass is used as connectors to hold the plug pin to allow the flow of electricity to the electrical appliances.

Plastics can be divided into two type of categories which are synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds and this type of plastics are mostly derived from petrochemical. It is made by building up from simple chemical substances. To ensure the plastics bonding are tougher, safer, and cleaner, polymers that build up plastics are added with complex blend of materials known as “additives” (Talbot, 1941). These include biodegradable plasticisers, flame retardants, and heat stabilizers. The grade of plastics used in socket manufacturing is mainly thermoplastics or thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics are plastics that will not undergo physical or chemical change in their composition upon heated (Gilleo, 2004). Thermosetting polymers, on the other hand can melt and take shape only once. They remains in solid once they have solidified. There are few common plastics grade that are used in fabricating power socket.

Phenolic is one of the plastics used in manufacturing process. It act as a good electrical insulators and able to withstand resistance against water, acid and most solvents. It has low thermal conductivity and rigid at room temperature. The normal operating temperature limit for phenolic molding is 150°C, but grades are available which will operate at up to 200°C for limited periods. These properties allow it to be used in electric appliances industry (Black, 2010). There are two main production methods. One reacts phenol and formaldehyde directly to produce a thermosetting network polymer, while the other restricts the formaldehyde to produce a prepolymer known as novolac which can be molded and then cured with the addition of more formaldehyde and heat (Gardziella, Pilato, & Knop, 2000; Hesse, 2004).
Melamine formaldehyde, or melamine is another type of plastics that is used due to its strong and glossy properties. Melamine shows good resistance to heat, chemicals, moisture, electricity and scratching which makes it to have excellent molding properties in producing power sockets and plugs (Black, 2010). Melamine formaldehyde was discovered by William F. Talbot and patent was applied on 12 December 1936 (Talbot, 1941).

Another type of plastics that is widely used is polyimide. Thermosetting polyimide is one of the highest performing engineering plastics, with superior performance in applications under severe conditions. The properties of polyimide materials include:

high temperature resistance that have operating temperature of 315°C,

high wear resistance,

low thermal expansion,

good thermal and electrical insulation,

relatively easy to machine,

With this properties, thermosetting polyimides are used in various types of manufacturing industries including automotive, electrical appliances, aircraft and aerospace (Black, 2010). These materials tend to be insoluble and have high softening temperatures, arising from charge-transfer interactions between the planar subunits (Liaw et al., 2012).
Brass is the material used as the electrical conductor inside the wall socket. Brass is a material that is made of copper and zinc. Copper-zinc solid solution alloy or brass retains good corrosion resistance and formability of copper but are relatively stronger (Fungal & Brody, 1996). Brass is used widely in the socket manufacturing due to its properties and it is a cheaper material compare to gold. Brass is generally soft which means that it can be machined without the use of cutting fluid, though there are exceptions to this (Faraday, 1832). Brass is used in situations where it is important that sparks are not struck, for example use as a fittings and tools that near flammable or explosive materials. CL 15000 99.85Cu-0.15Zr or zirconium-copper is one of the brass used in fabrication process. It has elastic modulus of 129 GPa and fatigue strength of 180 MPa. The density of CL 15000 is 8.89 g/cm3 and it has a liquidus temperature of 1080°C. The electrical conductivity of 93% IACS at 20°C. CL 15000 can withstand a temperature up to 1080°C before it melts 93% IACS shows that it is a good electrical conductor. Another similar brass or copper alloy, CL 15100 shows a similar properties as in CL 15000. This alloy is called ZHC copper and the elastic modulus is slightly smaller (121 GPa), the density is larger (8.94 g/cm3) and the liquidus temperature is the same at 1080°C. However, CL 15100 is a better conductor of electricity with 95% IACS if it is annealed and 90% if it is rolled with volumetric at 20°C (Fungal & Brody, 1996).

The material used for doing the conductors inside wall socket but be able to withstand overheating. If the holders are getting hotter relative to time, there will be a risk of fire. The heating comes from the current which is drawn by the appliance and the resistance of the conductor. The plug pin will be inserted to or removed from the socket when using it. If the material wears too much, the holder may not be able to hold the plug pins firmly. Besides, the material used must be in low cost to keep the material and processing costs down.
The material used to fabricate an electrical wall socket is crucial in safety purposes. Failure of the material used may possess danger like electrical sparking. Types of plastics used must be a good electrical insulator to avoid the electricity to be channelled into area other than the socket holes that fit in electrical plug. Types of brass used must have good ductility to ensure that the holder of the socket will always mate with the plug pin tightly and allow electricity to flows through efficiently.

By selecting the right material in fabrication, problems like electrical sparking can be avoided. Electric sparking is an abrupt electrical discharge that occurs when a sufficiently high electric field creates an ionized, electrically conductive channel through a normally insulating medium, often air or other gases or gas mixtures. Faraday described this phenomenon as “beautiful flash of light attending the discharge of common electricity (Faraday, 1832). By rapid transitioning of electric field from a non-conducting to a conductive stats, it will produce a brief emission of light and a sharp crack or snapping sound.

Fire is one of the major disasters around the world and electrical fire is the leading type of fire in terms of occurrence rate. An analysis is done in China and the leading type of fault resulting in major electrical fires is short circuit (43.89%) while the second leading fault is loose contact accounting for 8.89%. The second type of faulty is more difficult to discover as it is always covered by some illusions including short circuits. A study to such fires also known as sparking was conducted by Zi-Bo, Man, Chang-Zheng, and Ming (2011). First, two different types of loose contact fault, contact area reduction and contact vibrations are simulated tested and the temperature and some electrical parameters of contact resistance are tabulated during the testing. With this results, the characteristic identification criterion for loose contact is proposed (Zi-Bo et al., 2011).

In the experiment, plugs and American style single 3 pin socket of rated current 10A are used under conditions of reduction and contact areas and contact vibrations. External heating temperature of 100°C, 200°C, 300°C, 400°C, 500°C, 600°C and 700°C are used to determine the characteristic law of samples. Apparently the plastics insulations of shells are melted and deformed while the metal parts are carbonized but there is no sign of melting and deformation. From the analysis results, it can be concluded that under fault over a small contact area, the plug’s terminal could reach a temperature of 300–400°C and the contact area between plug and socket can reach a temperature of 200–300°C. The major problem in sparking is after melting and carbonizing of insulation material of wall socket, secondary fault including combustion and short circuit may happen directly (Techakittiroj, 2008).

The inductance of the wall sockets will result in creating sparks. When the outlet is unplugged, the inductance in the distributed system resists the change in the current. The path for the current has to be created and it is only active when the socket is unplugged. The rising voltage appears mainly at the outlet terminal and the major concern is to reduce the voltage at the socket. By reducing the voltage, the electrical sparks on the contact surface can be eliminated and this improves the socket lifetime. A capacitor is used to absorb energy from the inductance where the voltage will be regulated by the capacitor. By combining a capacitor with an inductor will result an oscillation at the voltage terminal and prolongs the durations of high voltage at the terminal. A resistor is used to damp the oscillation (Techakittiroj, 2008). Figure 4 shows the PSpice circuit for analysing a socket outlet.